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Originally presented as a complement to the statutes on a European cooperative society and a European mutual society, the proposed statute for a European association seems to have gotten bogged down again after a brief resumption of inter-governmental negotiations. Reviewing the different positions that have been for or against the statute and the arguments of the main parties in this debate at the European level and within several Member States, the article seeks to understand why this proposal has generated so little interest among governments and nonprofit actors. According to the authors, the relative skepticism about the proposal seems symptomatic of both the difficulties of developing a European policy on nonprofit associations and the resistance to the symbolic attachment of the nonprofit sector to the social economy domain.

AbstractSince the unexpected unification of 1989-1990, the new Germany has had difficulties adjusting and meeting both the expectations and the reservations of its major international partners. Germany, the main European power, will henceforth have to take on a much more important role in Europe and throughout the world. The question is: What will this new role entail? The new world order will force Germany to abandon the discretion we had become used to during the Cold War, without creating any undue concern among its European neighbours, including Russia who will maintain troops on German soil until August 1994. We have in this paper analyzed the German debate regarding the orientation of the changing foreign policy, noting that new attitudes and perspectives are significant and that they were first encountered during the Gulf War.

AbstractThis article quantitatively studies the macroeconomic impact of creating a free trade area between Morocco and the European Union, while underlining its effects regarding migratory flow. The analysis framework is a computable general equilibrium model which assumes the following new international trade theory hypothesis: increasing scale outputs and products differentiation. The model, which comprises nine Moroccan economic sectors, analyzes the macroeconomic effects on emigration and the creation of a free trade area between Morocco and Europe. Results show that, under current conditions of competitiveness of the Moroccan economy, free trade would induce a strong industrial depression and a growing external deficit. It would lead to a fall in employment, particularly in industry. Consequently, Moroccan migratory flows will be maintained and developed towards Europe.

Translation starts with a document in one language and ends with a document with the same meaning in another language. Technical communication entails designing and writing a document from scratch in one language. The answer to the question of “Which, of translation or writing, comes first?” seems relatively obvious – the document needs to be written before it can be translated. However, when looking at translation and technical communication as professions and examining how the professionals are trained, the answer is not quite as clear-cut. In the United States, translators and technical communicators have different qualifications, different skills – in particular different language skills – and have degrees in different fields. Only recently has there appeared a certain convergence between the professions. In Europe, and more specifically in France, the profession of technical communicator is quite recent, as are the corresponding academic programs. Many technical communicators came to the profession from translation. The convergence therefore is perceived as being far greater. The purpose of this paper is to launch a comparative study of the competences or skills of translators and technical communicators, based on the existing European Master's in Translation (EMT) list of competences for translators. The goal of this study would be to define the core skills for technical communicators, to examine to what extent they overlap with the competences of translators and ultimately, to establish a referential for training programs in technical communication.

Keywords: technical communication, translation, skills, survey, convergence, communication technique, traduction, compétences, enquête, convergence

AbstractFor more than 10 years most countries have promoted the employment of social assistance recipients, that is activation. Any assessment reveals common characteristics as well as continuing and large diversity across Europe and between Europe and the United States. Activation of social protection is part of an historical logic even as these reforms have had both ideological and institutional consequences and have altered political strategies. Everywhere the promises that legitimated the reforms were both access to paid work and elimination of poverty and social exclusion. As we now know, these promises have not been met. While levels of spending have been contained, we know less about the effects on the lived experiences of individuals, these being so hard to compare across countries.

The relationship between the Commissioner for Human Rights and the European Court of Human Rights has varied considerably over time, from a clear separation of functions to increasing interactions. Resolution (99)50 on the Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights, adopted on 7 May 1999, reflects a clear willingness to separate the two institutions. This separation, however, did not mean isolation from each other in practice and did not prevent cross-references between the Commissioner and the Court from increasing over the years. In the course of his/her country or thematic work, the Commissioner relies on international and European conventions, and in the first place the Convention and the case law of the Court, when making recommendations to member states. Conversely, the Court has from the outset made references to the work of the Commissioner in its judgments. While the different roles of the two institutions might explain the sometimes diverging approaches, cross-references between the Commissioner and the Court have undoubtedly enriched each other's work. With the entry into force of Protocol nº14 to the Convention in 2010, the Commissioner's functions have been formally extended, providing formal recognition to the institution of the Commissioner, which is expressly introduced in the text of the Convention and into the control mechanism established by the Convention. The Commissioner may now on his/her own initiative exercise the right to intervene as a third-party before the Court, by submitting written comments and taking part in hearings. This possibility represents an additional tool at the Commissioner's disposal to help promote and protect human rights. The Commissioner's role in the process of execution of the Court's judgments has also increased over the years. With the amendment introduced in 2017 to the Rules of the Committee of Ministers for the supervision of the execution of judgments (Rule 9), which allows the Commissioner to submit written comments on the execution of judgments directly to the Committee of Ministers, the contribution by the Commissioner to the execution of judgments is expected to have a greater impact.

Keywords: perfection, valorisation, plurilinguisme déséquilibré, compétence, sentiment d'efficacité personnelle, insécurité linguistique