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While more than 50% of the world's population is connected to the Internet, the major platforms, and particularly Facebook, have acquired an enormous political power. This new situation forces us to rethink the emancipation project of the enlightenment. In this article, I propose that researchers in the humanities and social sciences take up this challenge by adopting and disseminating new standards of reflexive collective intelligence. Knowledge commons, open science and the sovereignty of individuals over the data they produce are unanimously accepted. But these essential principles are not enough. The available computing and communication power, combined with the use of IEML (a language with computable semantics), enables us to contemplate a transparency of the knowledge, meaning and authority creation processes. I present here the main strategic orientations for reaching these objectives. An epistemological revolution in the human sciences is within reach, and with it a new stage in the evolution of critical thinking.

Keywords: Facebook, IEML, épistémologie, humanités numériques, intelligence collective, transparence, pragmatique, jeux de langage, sémantique, linguistique, révolution scientifique, science ouverte, communs de la connaissance, Lumières, autorité, vérité, Facebook, IEML, epistemology, digital humanities, collective intelligence, transparency, pragmatics, language games, semantics, linguistics, scientific revolution, open science, knowledge commons, Lumières, authority, truth

The multiplication of the private military and security companies as well as their increasing presence in war zones are raising numerous questionings beyond the (complex) subject of the status of these companies within the humanitarian international law. We shall here try to determine the impact of this "privatization of war" on the evolution of the public international law and, quite particularly, on the international humanitarian law. More precisely, can we assume that the international humanitarian law will gradually conform to the requirements of a market of war? In this respect, we shall here try to demonstrate that the commercial logic which presently prevails regarding the regulation of these companies is part of a historic course, inside of which the private actors present in war zones were granted a fluctuating legitimacy. This paper will be divided into three sections. Firstly, we will examine the presence of private actors within armed conflicts in a historical perspective in order to bring to light the relative novelty of the idea of the State's monopoly on legitimate violence. Secondly, we shall analyze the underlying causes of the appearance and the following multiplication of the private military and security companies, as well as their status within the international humanitarian law. Lastly, we will present a reflection on the impact of the "privatization of war" on the public international law and, more precisely, on the international humanitarian law.

Since World War II, the number of non-international armed conflicts has increased dramatically. However, the absence of legislation has enabled belligerents to commit near-systematic violations of international humanitarian law (IHL). Provisions of the IHL allow combatants to enter into special agreements among themselves so as to apply these rules in whole or in part. As such, these accords are of particular importance in that they compensate for the shortcomings of existing standards. To this end, this study identifies the characteristics and legal effects of special agreements and examines the roles of the States, international organizations and the International Committee of the Red Cross in the rationalization of non-international armed conflicts.

In continuation with the work on civic environmentalism, which focus on how local activism reconfigures citizen engagement in urban space and governance, in the perspective of the ecological transition, the authors of this article examine the role of urban agriculture associations in the Plaine Commune institutional territory (communauté d'agglomération) of Ile-de-France. It appears as a double territorial logic related to both the nature of the actors and to the spatial and socio-political dynamics.

Keywords: environnementalisme civique, mutualisation territoriale, agriculture urbaine, gouvernance urbaine, nature en ville, civic environmentalism, territorialization, urban agriculture, urban governance, urban nature

Material and energy flow analysis (MEFA) is a helpful tool for understanding systems and is essential in several applications. It is based on accounting approach of flows and on mass and energy conservation principles. MEFA was particularly important for industrial development, but it is now also very useful to tackle ecological issues. Indeed, it allows for describing material dynamics and interactions with the environment at different scales : from micro level for an industrial process or an organisation (company, administration ...) to macro level for a territory (city, region, country ...). MEFA can also be performed at a transversal scale when realising a life-cycle inventory for a given product. Even with specific methods for each of those scales, the analysis have common basis and can have similar uses. We identified in literature different typologies of applications : environmental impacts assessment, process optimization, study of material dispersion and deposit, identification of local resources, legislative contribution, communication on environmental impacts and progresses, urbanism consideration, building of a territory shared vision including circular economy and resiliency consideration. MEFA have thus a large panel of applications to tackle sustainable development according different societal and technical perspectives. Hence, it should be included among the governance tools of organisations and territories. However this will be possible only if we success to overcome several difficulties : managing a big amount of data ; making feedbacks accessible to uninitiated people through different understanding frameworks ; developing legislation in favour of material accounting ; and gathering various competences in order to correctly perform and interpret MEFA.

Keywords: bilan, évaluation, environnement, comptabilité, écologie, métabolisme, territorial, industriel, économie, circulaire, balance, assessment, environment, accounting, ecology, metabolism, territory, industrial, circular, economy

It is difficult to understand the major changes in education unless one is looking from a certain distance and adopting a larger vision in relation to the dominant management paradigm. This text presents some theoretical foundations on the New Public Management (NPM), a management paradigm at the base of most of the new reforms in education. The principles can be summarized in a few words: increased decisional participation of the users, who are seen as consumers and electors, the obligation to have quantifiable results, decentralization, increased imputablilty and putting monitoring methods in place. In applying the NPM to education, some facts must be taken into consideration, such as the obligation to measure the performance of the educational system in the context of globalization, the recognition of the individuality of the person, the growing role of parents, the limits of change absorption and finally, the emergence of professionialization.