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La valeur d'une marque n'arrive pas par hasard et le positionnement devient un outil primordial à la création de cette valeur comme la création d'un pouvoir d'attraction d'une destination touristique. Les destinations gagnantes au positionnement international ont pris conscience de l'existence de la destination comme médium et ont évolué d'un marketing traditionnel à un modèle dynamique adapté aux nouvelles caractéristiques des services touristiques (Langlois, 2003). Un service est une expérience temporelle vécue par le client lors de son interaction avec le personnel de l'entreprise en un support matériel ou technique. C'est une activité de nature plus ou moins intangible qui se réalise lors de l'interaction entre le client et l'employé de l'entreprise produisant le service. Ces derniers sont facilement imitables d'où la nécessité de bien …

The goal of this study is to assess the degree of horizontal heterogeneity of phytoplankton and zooplankton communities in the lake-reservoir El Kansera (Morocco), in order to define the principal factors responsible for the plankton distribution in the lake.Five stations have been studied; station S1 is the most influenced by allochthonous inputs from oued Beht (a tributary), stations S2 and S3 represent a transition between the lotic and lacustrine environments, and stations S4 and S5 represent true lacustrine conditions.The phytoplankton and zooplankton samplings were carried out during two seasons in 1996 (spring and summer), with a plankton net which consisted of a silk cone (height: 120 cm, mesh size: 40 µm). An average sample was prepared by several vertical tows. The samplings of chlorophyll and abiotic parameters were performed at different depths with a polyvinylchloride bottle with a capacity of 5 L and an automatic closing device. The phytoplankton counting was done according to the method of Legendre and Watt (1972). The algal biomass (µg.L-1) was estimated by chlorophyll-a (method of Lorenzen 1967) and wet weight (method of Lohmann (1908). Zooplankton counting was done in a Dolfuss cell (method of Pont 1983). The biomass of Rotifers, Cladocerans or Copepods (µg.L-1) was calculated according to the method of Dumont et al. (1975) and Bottrell et al. (1976). The physico-chemical analyses were performed at LPEE (Public Laboratory of Essay and Studies). Temperature, pH and conductivity were measured in situ, with a sounding Horiba U7. Dissolved oxygen was measured by the method of Winkler (Rodier 1984). Water transparency was measured by Secchi disc (Reynolds). Suspended matter was determined according to the method of AFNOR (1994). Nitrates and total phosphorus were analysed by colorimetry, respectively after reduction on a cadmium column and mineralization in acid medium (AFNOR 1994).The lake-reservoir El Kansera presents a longitudinal gradient (oued Beht-dyke) of biotic and abiotic parameters in relation both to morphometric and hydrologic characteristics and to the importance of allochthonous inputs and the nutrient cycles (nitrates and phosphorus). The maximum phytoplankton abundance (wet weight) is observed at 2/3 of the lake's length, and the chlorophyll-a peaks are recorded in the upper zone. In the spring, two alga species are dominant in the lake, Scenedesmus ecornis and Cyclotella ocellata, whereas in summer, one species is abundant (Microcystis aeruginosa).Zooplankton abundance shows a similar evolution to that of the phytoplankton, with a longitudinal heterogeneity of Rotifers (Brachionus calyciflorus, Polyarthra vulgaris and Keratella tropica) and different development stages of Cladocerans (Bosminalongirostris and Diaphanosoma brachyurum) and Copepods (Acanthocyclops robustus). Rotifers and the small stages of Crustaceans are concentrated in the median zone, whereas the Crustacean adults are dominant in the deeper point of the reservoir. Vertebrate predation by the " Chinese carp " and the degraded quality of the algae (blooms of Microcystis) also seem to contribute to this distribution.The results of the study, confirmed by the statistical Student test, indicate three zones in the lake-reservoir: the upper zone (station S1), which is located at the mouth of the oued Beht, is the least productive due to its shallow depth, low oxygenation, high turbidity and frequent mixing. The intermediate zone, between lotic and lacustrine conditions (stations S2 and S3), is strongly enriched with nutrients (nitrates and phosphorus) and characterised by a higher productivity; this zone presents dense phytoplanktonic populations. The lacustrine zone (stations S4 and S5) is of intermediate productivity, and offers good conditions for large size classes of Crustacea.

Keywords: Retenue de barrage, hétérogénéité horizontale, gradient, turbidité, oued** Beht, phytoplancton, biomasse, chlorophylle, zooplancton, rotifères, crustacés, adultes, prédation, blooms à Microcystis, Lake-reservoir, horizontal heterogeneity, gradient, oued Beht, inputs, nutrients, nitrates, phosphorus, phytoplankton, biomass, chlorophyll, zooplankton, Rotifers, Cladocerans, Copepods, adults, predation, Microcystis blooms, turbidity

This article compares two ways of viewing the hydro-climatic hazards. We used a conceptual tool based on the distinction between an etic point of view (that of the researcher in the prism of its own culture) and an emic point of view (point of view of the studied society). The emic point of view on the hazard is analysed, a case study is described in the High Atlas from Morocco : The valley of the Aït Bou Guemez. We describe the way the people of the Aït Bou Guemez consider the uncertainty and the unpredictability concerning the water by their myths, their ritual practices and the practical activity giving a partial protection. Then we confront their apparent lack of risk management to the risk approach proposed by the modern sciences and the contemporary risk engineering, implemented for example, in the South of France. The confrontation of these two viewpoints allows us to reconsider the relationship existing between water and the societies. This reexamined relation lead us to give more importance to a water culture which does not pass necessarily by a risk culture and give more consideration to the know-how approach.

Keywords: risque, aléa, eau, culture, émique, Haut Atlas, Maroc, risk, hazard, water, culture, emic, High-Atlas, Morocco

AbstractThis paper examines links between time and space and between history and geography by observing the ways in which real and perceived time – which we here call temporality – are central components in the construction of territories and can be used as tools by stakeholders. Two types of environmental events are taken as the starting points of our approach: the ‘return' of the wolf to the French countryside and Morocco's country-wide ‘drought.' Based on these dissimilar situations, a methodological grid is constructed and the epistemological bases of the approach are shown within the context of disagreement over the meaning and function of territory. Conflict between differing concepts of territory over time are at the heart of the problem. To overcome this clash, public action has more or less implicit recourse to the concept of temporality.

Keywords: Temps, temporalités, territoire, action publique, politique environnementale, gestion de la faune sauvage, gestion de l'eau, Time, temporality, territory, space, public action, environmental policy, wildlife management, water management

AbstractOlive mill wastewaters (OMW) are a significant source of environmental pollution, especially in important olive oil producing countries such as Spain, Italy, Greece, Tunisia, Morocco, Turkey, Lebanon, Syria and Portugal. When discharged into the environment, olive mill wastewaters create serious environmental problems, such as colouring of natural waters, alteration of soil quality, phytotoxicity and nuisance odours.Several methods have been reported for the removal of pollutants from these effluents. These technologies can be divided into three categories: biological, chemical and physical. Physical-chemical treatment is well known and has yielded promising results. Several authors have tested coagulation-flocculation techniques using different coagulants, such as aluminium sulphate, ferric chloride, ferric sulphate and lime, but there are few studies that have investigated the combined effect of a mixture of coagulants.The objectives of this work were to carry out a complete characterization of the raw and decanted olive mill wastewater, resulting from a modern unit located in the Marrakesh region, and to study the reduction in organic load and phenol content achievable by coagulation-flocculation using two different coagulants (lime, aluminium sulphate) and their combination. The quantity of sludge produced by the different coagulants was also determined.Coagulation tests were realized using jar test equipment in a series of six flasks. One flask corresponded to a control suspension without adding any coagulant. The other suspensions were treated with increasing coagulant concentrations of lime or aluminium sulphate, used separately (concentrations varying from 0 to 30 g/L and from 0 to 3 g/L, respectively) or in mixture. All solutions were stirred first for 3 min at 130 rpm, and then after the coagulant addition for 20 min at 30 rpm, followed by 1 h settling. Solution pH was adjusted to the desired value with sulphuric acid (4 N) or NaOH (5 N) before the coagulant was added. The supernatant was separated from the precipitate for analysis and the sludge was determined gravimetrically after drying at 100°C for 4h.Raw olive mill wastewaters are acidic (pH 4.55) and due to this low pH value biological treatment of OMW is limited. OMW are also highly saline (electric conductivity 8.4 mS/cm), due to the salting practiced to preserve olives during trituration. These effluents contain also high loads of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD of 72 g/L) and toxic polyphenols (1.4 g/L). Comparison of the characteristics of the raw and decanted olive mill wastewater showed that decantation for 3 months did not seem to affect the physical-chemical characteristics of the studies olive mill effluent, except for the concentration of the total suspended solids (TSS), which passed from 57 to 32 g/L.Coagulation-flocculation tests showed that the application of aluminium sulphate without correction of the pH caused a small decrease of the pH from 4.67 to 4.54. The optimal elimination of the polyphenols (23%), TSS (24%) and colour (15%) was obtained with an amount of 1.5 g/L, whereas the optimum for elimination of COD (50%) was obtained with an amount of 1.8 g/L. These abatements demonstrate that the studied pH range did not allow very important elimination of the polluting loads, in particular for polyphenols. Adjust of the pH to 6.31-7.08 led to a slight improvement in the percentage of reduction of TSS (27%) and COD (40%), and the abatement of polyphenols passed from 23% to 41%. This application of aluminium sulphate alone generated only a small quantity of sludge, corresponding to the low degree of TSS removal. Lime application involved an increase in pH up to an addition of 15 g/L, after which the pH stabilized around 12. A lime application of 20 g/L resulted in the reduction of COD (43%), TSS (50%) and an important elimination of polyphenols (75%); sludge produced sludge after coagulation was significant (35 g/L).The successive addition of lime to 1.5 g/L of aluminium sulphate raised the pH, starting from an amount of 10 g/L, and induced a removal of TSS (71%), COD (38%), polyphenols (54%) and colour (61%) at a dose of 20 g/L of lime. The successive addition of aluminium sulphate to 15 g/L of lime involved only a slight variation of the pH and allowed the elimination of TSS (48%), COD (36%), polyphenols (35%) and colour (70%) at a dose of 3 g/L of aluminium sulphate. Comparison between the two coagulant combinations indicated that the best TSS removal was obtained for an amount of 1.5 g/L of aluminium sulphate and 20 g/L of lime, but with a production of 40 g/L of sludge. In the case of the elimination of colour, the best combination was obtained for a dose of 3 g/L aluminium sulphate and 15 g/L of lime, with a production of only 30 g/L of sludge. All in all, the best coagulation-flocculation was obtained by application of 20 g/L of lime (used alone) and by the combination of 1.5 g/L of aluminium sulphate and 20 g/L of lime, which gave a better elimination of the colloidal particles, a good reduction of the organic matter causing colour and the toxic polyphenols. The quantity of the sludge produced from the test with lime alone was 35 g/L, whereas the combination of lime and aluminium sulphate produced 40 g/L. Analysis of variance showed that the production of sludge for the two coagulants did not present statistically significant differences (p>0.05).

Keywords: margines, polyphénols, charge organique, sulfate d'aluminium, chaux, olive mill wastewater, organic load, polyphenols, coagulation-flocculation, aluminium sulphate, lime

The process of political reconciliation in Morocco is part of a recent history, notably marked by the creation in 2004 of an Equity and Reconciliation Commission whose task is to repair the victims of the State violence. A comprehensive financial compensation and a medical rehabilitation are the two concrete aspects of this politics of reparation, in which medical certification takes on a significant evaluative value. In addition of being decisive in the estimation of the injuries and their compatibility with the endured violence, it is also decisive in assessing the nature of the psycho-medical recovery. It is this role assigned to the medical expertise that I wish to examine here. What does it say on the procedures of selection to define the repairable forms of loss and hence the very notion of « victim » ? What does it say about the notions of testimony, evidence and truth ? How do these approaches generally inform the relationship to the history of violence and to the suffering of victims ?

Keywords: Rhani, Maroc, violence politique, IER, politique de réparation, certification médicale, Rhani, Morocco, Political Violence, Equity and Reconciliation Commission, Politics of Reparation, Medical Certification, Rhani, Marruecos, violencia política, IER, política de reparación, certificación médica

This article examines the poet Abdellatif Laâbi's auto-anthology L'Arbre à poèmes, published in the « Poésie / Gallimard » collection in 2016. An integral part of the author's « summative works », it brings together a selection of poems published between 1992 and 2012 in various collections. After defining the notion of « auto-anthology », this article examines the choices that presided over the composition of this literary object from a sociological and poetic perspective. The collection, characterized by mobility and fragmentation, invites us to reread some of the author's poems, through a process of recomposition. Moving from one tone and form to another, in a playful game of counterpoint and constant alternation, Laâbi invites the reader to explore a poetic and « human continent » that he has never stopped roaming.

Keywords: Abdellatif Laâbi, auto-anthologie, lyrisme, poésie francophone, poésie contemporaine

Tree in multi-use, the argan tree is also in multifunction : economic, social and environmental. He(it) was, and it is still, an important element of the local agrarian system and participates in the preservation of a particular biodiversity. As it always configured and gave rhythm to the life of the populations of the arganraie because it was (or one of its products) always present in their culinary, festive or sociocultural activities. However, the boom of the market of the argan engendered multiple consequences on the socioeconomic and cultural life of these populations. To understand and analyze these evolutions and the new local dynamics which take place there, we realized an empirical study in the region of Essaouira at the level of two rural districts. What allowed us, besides the historic analysis, to compare the dynamics which are in progress at the level of these two municipalities Our main results show that the craze for the products of the argan tree and the fit of their prices (in particular the oil) have re-configured the local socioeconomic and cultural life : new actors appeared, a market insufficiently structured and not rather profitable in premises was set up, the local know-how affects, new modes of food made their appearance, customs and traditions are endangered, etc.

Keywords: Arganier, Essaouira, valeurs socioculturelles, dynamiques locales, savoir, Maroc, agriculture, Argan tree, Essaouira, sociocultural values, local dynamics, knowledge, agriculture, Morocco