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This study aims at functionally treating the linguistic aspects of “culturemes” (cultural-specific items) in Le Passé simple by Driss Chraïbi (1954). This linguistic examination will be accompanied by a comparative study of the two translations into Arabic, carried out, respectively, by a Tunisian translator in 1986 and a Moroccan translator in 2012. To test the degree of “relevance” of the strategies adopted by the translators for this cult novel in order to understand the “ethnocentric” practices or the different modifications that Chraïbi subjected both to the multiple cultural signs of Arabic and to the translating language of the Other, which he deliberately seeks to subvert, this paper plans to analyze: (1) the translation difficulties of Koranic intertexts and hadits (words and quotations from the Prophet) which were not, in turn, safe from the said subversive transformations, despite their sacred character, during the writing of the French version and (2) a good number of culturemes drawn by Chraïbi from the Moroccan culture (e.g., lexical borrowings, idiomatic expressions, phrases and proverbs) and the problems of their interpretation and translation into Arabic.

Keywords: culturèmes, ethnocentrisme, transformations subversives, emprunts lexicaux, expressions idiomatiques, culturemes, ethnocentrism, subversive transformations, lexical borrowings, idiomatic expressions, culturemas, etnocentrismo, transformaciones subversivas, préstamos léxicos, expresiones idiomáticas

Keywords: Tunisie, tourisme, résidence d'étranger, territoire, système, ville

The Al Massira reservoir, located in the district of Settat 120 km south-east of Casablanca, is of great importance notably at the level of the management of the Oum Er Rbia River-catchment basin.Several grazing experiments were performed to assess the intensity of phytoplankton predation by zooplankton species, on 20 March l992, 27 and 28 May 1992, respectively, over the day and the night. Two enclosures were used and incubated in situ at 5 and 15 m over 8 hours, The first enclosure consisted of a mixture of several phytoplankton and zooplankton species. The second was free of zooplancton.The results clearly demonstrated that the technique used in this work seemed to be effective in that a signifïcant difference between the initial and final numbers of phytoplankton species incubated in the enclosure was detected. In addition, we confirmed several literature reports relative to the selective characteristics of herbivore predation on algae: large phytoplankton (e.g., Peridinium cinctum, Ceratium hirundinellaand Staurastrum pingue) were not affected. The grazing pressure depended on the size of preys and on the exudates released by the physiofogically active small phytoplankton species (e.g., Oocystis crassa, Cyclotella sp.) evolving in the enclosures. Among small preys, only species with high growth rate (estimed in the control flask, e.g., Cosmarium sp. and Tetraedron sp.) were subjected to the zooplankton predation. The copepod nightgrazing was lower than that recorder during the day, probably due to a decrease in their ability to detect preys in the dark.Our result contradict several results obtained by the method of NANEY (1971) according to which grazing increases during the night.Two assumptions may be proposed to explain such a discrepancy:- The zooplankton community of the Al Massira Reservoir was quantitatively dominated by the Calanoid Neolovenula alluaudi.Yet, according to HANEY and HALL (1975), these Copepods showed a slight diel grazing change compared to that of Cladocera. It seemed likely that these temporal variabilities were not statistically significant but rather inherent to the overall internal fluctuation oftlte cell metabolism.- The HANEY (1971) method allows estimation of the water volume per unit time, which transits along the digestive tract of zooplankters. Nevertheless, this technique was mostly performed in markedly stratified natural lakes. From a strictly physiological point of view, and as demonstrated by MC LAREN (1963), organisms which evolved in deep layers (low temperature) became metabolically more active when they reached superficial layers (increased temperature). Clearly, this increase in the cell metabolism abilities is translated into a higher volume of water passing through the digestive tract but not necessarily into an increase in ingested phytoplankton preys. Our results went along with the aforementioned interpretation since we clearly demonstrated an optimal Copepoda-grazing selectivity. However, the selection of preys would not imply a direct relationship between the ingested volume of water and energetic inputs.

Keywords: Retenue, zooplancton, phytoplancton, broutage, Reservoir, zooplankton, phytoplankton, grazing

The relationships between large retailers and manufacturers are often perceived as conflicting, as part of a fierce struggle to get a share of value added. To extend its market power, the large retailer develops a short-term vision of exchange, with no will of long-term commitment. However, the literature insists on the emergence of a new form of relational dynamics that breaks with the old ways of relationship governance. The paper examines the reality of this mutation from a field study conducted in an emerging country, and concludes with the adoption of a long-term orientation by the large retailer, under a number of specific conditions.

Keywords: canal de distribution, confiance, dépendance, orientation à long terme, relations inter-organisationnelles, distribution channel, trust, dependence, long-term orientation, interorganizational relationships, canal de distribución, confianza, dependencia, orientación a largo plazo, interorganizacionales relaciones