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In the eight months, between May 1944 and January 1945, Canada's four major art museums brought together their resources to produce the first comprehensive exhibition of the history of painting in Canada. The Development of Painting in Canada 1665-1945 succeeded by grouping together nearly 200 paintings which displayed a continuous reading of the production of more than 150 artists arranged by chronological periods, styles and pictorial genres. Given the political context, the result led to an ideological reading of the project, interpreted as a manifestation of the symbiosis between the two founding nations of Canada capable of developing a common culture.

Keywords: Canada, beaux-arts, art, peinture, peuples fondateurs, unité nationale, Canada, fine arts, art, painting, founding peoples, national unity

An ethnobotanical study was conducted with the main socio-cultural groups on woody plants in the riparian lands of the Mono Biosphere Reserve in Benin which is newly created and recognized by the Unesco in 2017. This study aims to determine the wood species with high ethnobotanical value in order to provide to the managers, the plant species which need high priority of conservation and promotion in the reserve management. Ethnobotanical surveys were conducted in 26 surrounded villages of the reserve where 593 respondents from five socio-cultural groups were selected and interviewed individually using a structured questionnaire. For data analysis, the used organs frequency citation, the informant's consensus factor and the ethnobotanical use value of the species were calculated. A total of 101 woody species were identified and used in eight categories Elaeis guineensis, Ficus trichopoda, Diospyros mespiliformis, Azadirachta indica, Vitex doniana and Mitragyna inermis yielded high ethnobotanical use-values. Ethnobotanical use value differed significantly between socio-cultural groups (P<0.0001, df =4). This study highlights the woody species which should be promoted in tree planting at large scale and in home garden in order to improve their availability and contribute to their sustainable conservation around the reserve.

Keywords: enquête ethnobotanique, facteur de consensus, organes utilisés, valeur d'usage ethnobotanique, Réserve, conservation durable, plantes ligneuses, ethnobotanical survey, consensus factor, used organs, ethnobotanical use value, Reserve, sustainable conservation, woody species

SummaryBetween 1975 and 1997, school teacher bargaining was conducted under the School Boards and Teachers Collective Negotiations Act (Bill 100). By most accounts, the teacher bargaining law was successful in promoting bilateral settlements with minimal strike activity. Following its election in 1995, the Harris government reduced public expenditures and introduced educational reforms. In doing so, it repealed Bill 100 and passed laws restricting teacher bargaining. These measures ranged from imposing restrictions on the scope of negotiable issues to attempts to make “voluntary” extracurricular activities mandatory. This study finds that the government's blunt and heavy-handed efforts to control collective bargaining processes and outcomes, not only proved futile, but led to an increase in work stoppages and protracted guerilla warfare at the school board level.

SummaryThis study investigates skill-based pay systems. Under such systems, pay levels are determined according to the nature, variety or specialized knowledge or skills that employees acquire, demonstrate or apply in the workplace. The aim of this study is to answer the following questions: (1) Which organizational characteristics are associated with the adoption of skill-based pay? and (2) Which outcomes of interest are associated with the adoption of skill-based pay in terms of perceived organizational performance and performance management system effectiveness?Drawing from the contingency perspective, several authors suggest that leaders and organizations that pursue certain specific business strategies (e.g., quality emphasis, prospector, cost reduction, people-based strategies) are more likely to adopt skill-based pay schemes (e.g., American Compensation Association 1996; Donnadieu and Denimal 1993; Gomez-Mejia and Balkin 1992; Heneman and Dixon 2001; Heneman and Gresham 1998; Lawler 1990; Snell and Dean 1994; Thompson et al. 1997; Von Glinow 1985; Zarifian 1988, 1999). The resource-based view of the firm leads us to believe that skill-based pay is more likely to constitute a competitive (Barney 1991; Collins and Clark 2003; Snell, Youndt and Wright 1996; Wright, Dunford and Snell 2001) and a strategic compensation option (Gomez-Mejia and Balkin 1992) within firms in knowledge-based industries. Risher (2000) provides evidence that firms with research and engineering centers often compensate their research and development personnel as a function of their competencies.In recent years, few studies have investigated the possible impacts of skill-based pay on objective measures of organizational performance (e.g., Long 1993; Murray and Gerhart 1998; Parent and Weber 1994). Although such studies are of great value, skill-based pay may also lead to improved performance management since it requires that more attention be given to how results are achieved. Therefore, the emphasis is more on behaviours than on results (Heneman and Gresham 1998; Smither 1998). As such, skill-based pay requires that leaders identify key competencies that are consistent with their business strategy and are considered a source of competitive advantage (Lawler 1996; Zingheim, Ledford and Schuster 1996).Thus, this study investigates both the determinants and consequences of skill-based pay. The first three hypotheses flow from the need to better understand the organizational settings that are most likely to adopt skill-based pay.Hypothesis 1. Compared to other organizations, those that adopt skill-based pay are more likely to (a) favour a differentiation strategy based upon innovation, (b) favour a differentiation strategy based upon quality, (c) favour a differentiation strategy based upon the development of people, (d) avoid a differentiation strategy based upon cost reduction.Hypothesis 2. Compared to other organizations, those that adopt skill-based pay are more likely to share a business culture that values participative management.Hypothesis 3. Compared to other organizations, those that adopt skill-based pay are more likely to be in knowledge-based industry sectors.The last two hypotheses flow from the need to better understand the consequences of skill-based pay in terms of perceived organizational performance and performance management effectiveness.Hypothesis 4. Compared to other organizations, those that adopt skill-based pay are more likely to consider that their organization is relatively effective in the areas of (a) marketing, (b) human resource management, and (c) financial performance.Hypothesis 5. Compared to other organizations, those that adopt skill-based pay are more likely to consider that their performance management system is more effective in the areas of achieving (a) employee engagement, (b) business strategy implementation, (c) supporting organizational culture, and (d) equitable treatment of employees.A questionnaire survey was mailed to a sample of human resource managers from firms with over 200 employees. Data analysis was performed on the 189 completed surveys. The adoption of skill-based pay was determined with two questions. First, respondents indicated whether their organization uses a formal competency-evaluation system for at least one category of personnel. Second, if a positive answer was provided on the first question, respondents then indicated whether there is in their organization a direct link between the assessment of competencies and employee compensation. Positive answers to both these questions determined that skill-based pay was used.The findings from this study suggest that the adoption of skill-based pay is not a function of often-mentioned contingency factors such as organizational size or union presence, two control variables that are included in the analyses. Overall, the explained variance in the adoption of skill-based pay that could be accounted for by the independent variables included in the model – business strategies, business culture that values participative management, and being in a knowledge-based industry sector – was relatively low. The results do indicate, however, that the adoption of skill-based pay is positively associated with a business culture that values participative management. As such, the results of this study provide little basis for the theoretical perspective that views the adoption of skill-based pay as rationally determined by the business strategy. The business strategies investigated in this study provide little explanatory power. With regards to the consequences of the adoption of skill-based pay, the results suggest that – after controlling for size and union presence – respondents perceive relatively higher financial and human resource management performance. In addition, the results suggest that the adoption of skill-based pay is associated with more effective performance management in the areas of achieving business strategy implementation and equitable treatment of employees.

AbstractDrugs, Sex, AIDS and Street Survival The Voice s of Five WomenThrough ethnographie observation of a network of about one hundred drug injectors in a neighborhood of New York City during 1989 and 1990, we examined attitudes expressed about AIDS and HIV-risk réduction. In the core of this paper are the words and expériences of five women who were injecting drugs and earning money through prostitution. Comparable expériences of friends and associâtes, and a wider picture of the context of drug use and sex sales, provide corroborative détails of the events they describe. Overall, a certain common perspective on the dangers and the hard realities of street survival émerges from thèse descriptions — one of striving against the odds, of episodic despair, of solidarity, and of dignity.