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AbstractThis article examines the concept of affirmative action for women and analyses this process within political institutions. The author posits that the exclusion of women from political institutions was a paradoxical decision; one which contradicts the core democratic principles of equality and liberty. According to the author, if affirmative action is justified through appeals to essentialist principles, we inevitably come back to those same paradoxes at the source of the original exclusion of women from the political process. The author advocates a return to political logic within the discourse that animates questions of equality.

Close to 20 years after its emergence and after some 15 years of implementation throughout the European Union (EU), what have been the effects of gender mainstreaming, a public policy instrument that seeks to identify the potential impact of government initiatives on women, men and gender relations ? This paper sets out to assess the effects of this new instrument of public action on the policy that nurtured it : the policy of promoting equality between women and men. Gender mainstreaming is neither a simple consequence nor just one of several causes of the change in EU equality policy. It is not just a revealing aspect of it, but also one of the main levers. As an instrument of public action, it has had distinctive effects that have brought about sweeping changes in the EU's gender regime.

The Recognition of environmental benefits program (« Reconocimiento de Beneficios Ambientales », RBA) in Costa Rica and Agri-Environmental Measures (AEM) in France are incentive instruments of agricultural policies to protect the environment. We draw lessons from a multicriteria comparative analysis of the application of these two instruments in Guanacaste in Costa Rica and Guadeloupe in France. Surveys were conducted with policy makers and with beneficiaries. In both studied cases, governance remains dominated by actors of the agricultural sector and programs are effective in the sense that they achieve the objectives that were defined (increase of improved pastures for the RBA, decrease of pesticide use for AEM). However the additionality of the programs is not clear. The two case studies have differences on equity in the distribution of public funds. Costa Rica has implemented concrete and specific modalities of aid capping. However, the small amount of the allocated budget limits the incentive character. In Guadeloupe, the distribution of funds allocated to the AEM reproduces the existing inequality in the distribution of public funds. The AEM budget is concentrated on key sectors that already benefit from most of the subsidies. Equity has emerged as a concern for policy makers and induced inflection in the modalities of implementation. These results highlight the importance of governance in the orientation and results of these incentive instruments.

Keywords: efficacité, additionnalité, équité, Mesures Agri-Environnementales, services environnementaux, effectiveness, additionality, equity, Agri-Environmental Measures, environmental services

SummaryLocal Authority and the Economie Crisis : The Example of Local and Régional Population Clusters in Switzerland's Jurassic Arc It is only certain regions of Switzerland - notedly those in the Jurassic arc - which now suffer the effects of the economic crisis. Though the economy has generated little discussion, various measures to counter employment consequences of the current crisis have been undertaken locally in those communes directly affected. These include attempts focusing mainly on increased emphasis on capital resources involving new players, who in a certain sense have replaced earlier leaders and company cadres in firms experiencing difficulties, and whose approaches are now somewhat more collectivist and political. In fact, the crisis for these communes is both political and economic, which permits one to predict an inevitable realignment of local forces with an eye to improved cooperation.

Cette recherche porte sur les stratégies des organismes pour et par les travailleuses du sexe qui luttent pour modifier les politiques publiques encadrant le travail du sexe au Canada depuis l’adoption de la loi C-36 en 2014. En s’appuyant sur la théorie de l’équilibre ponctuée développée par Baumgartner et Jones, cette étude analyse les différentes stratégies mobilisées par les organismes pour tenter de modifier l’image monopole du travail du sexe et de provoquer une ponctuation qui permettrait un changement des politiques publiques au Canada. Ce mémoire offre d’abord une exploration des stratégies des organismes à travers un organisme local : Stella, l’amie de Maimie et un organisme fédéral : l’Alliance canadienne pour la réforme des lois sur le travail du sexe. J’y étudie les arguments …

The article argues that the state plays, and has always played, a key role in the internationalization of firms and that theoretical explanations of MNE should take that role into account. The first part of the paper deals with the place of the state in the theories of multinational firms ; most theories can be classified into three currents : those arguing the decline of the Nation-State as a consequence of the growth of MNE, those seeing the territorial expansion of the state as a natural consequence of multinationalism and those arguing the direct but weak thrust of the State in favour of MNE. The second section of the paper analyses the main types of government intervention pushing national firms into foreign operations. The third section studies the most evident case of government intervention on multinationalisation : the case of multinational state enterprises. The article concludes that the state should be included - an increasingly so - as a major purveyor of advantages to national firms seeking to initiate or pursue foreign activities.

AbstractThis article, describing the Canadian context, has as its objective an analysis of the new organizational arrangements that are born from a knowledge economy that values innovation. As well, it deals with the question of consequences of these arrangements on the role of universities in the social and economic development of their environments. The author questions the plausibility of the emergence of a « second academic revolution » initiated by a change in the roles of the university-industry-State triad. This article uses both primary and secondary empirical data collected from research developed by the author and his students in the area of management of comparative public policies regarding higher education.

Globalization creates regional and social inequalities. In parallel, digital activities continue to grow, and they can contribute to creating jobs and reducing social and even territorial inequalities. In Québec, many programs were created to develop digital resources and activities throughout the territory. The aim is to stimulate business activity and create jobs. Certain areas that are predominantly urban, or peri-urban, manage to survive; however, the most distant rural areas and those close to major business centres, which concentrate all the activity, find themselves excluded. It is to reduce these territorial differences that the Québec government has developed various programs supporting the deployment of digital resources, including in devitalized rural areas. Taking advantage of this technological development, ways of working are diversifying in response to both the development, ways of working are diversifying in response to both the economic context (and its requirement for better productivity) and expectations of employees who want a better balance between their work and private life. Telework continues to gain importance in Québec and it has increased in some rural areas where there were demographic declines and loss of economic attractiveness. Our research is the result of an investigation conducted over eight months (January-August 2014) on nine regional municipalities of county (RMC) Québec (Les Appalaches, Argenteuil, Arthabaska, Brome-Missisquoi, Charlevoix, Papineau, Les Sources, Témiscamingue and Vaudreuil-Soulanges). This research has been updated in late 2015 and early 2016. We interviewed professionals in charge of the development of digital technology, as well as human resource professionals responsible for the implementation of telework and new technologies within these territories. The purpose of our study is to present the policies developed by Québec in digital technologies and teleworking and we highlight here the results obtained within the rural areas.