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Organization development can be looked upon as a global strategy which tends to improve the problem-solving capacity of an organization and its ability to cope with changes in its environment. It is global in the sense that it takes the entire organization as a target of intervention. However, any organization development activity will rely on a particular strategy using a framework that draws heavily from the behavioral sciences. This paper intends to analyse and compare six particular approaches on four different grounds : the nature and the theoretical background of each strategy, the level of intervention and the goals each tries to achieve. The strategies will be reviewed and compared in the following order : action-research ; process consultation ; socio-technical systems ; transactional approach ; social-analysis ; non-directive orientation.ACTION-RESEARCHIs a term carried by Kurt Lewin in an effort to incorporate research work into action. The idea was to study group processes by participating in the life and the evolution of the group. Lewin realized that individual attitudes and behavior can be changed if the attitudes and norms of groups are changed. Action-research made explicit the main phases of any change process : diagnostic-feedback- commitment to action. This approach follows the stream of thought elaborated by the gestalt theorists and the hegelian concept of social evolution. It is particularly used at the group level. Since groups interact with other groups in large organizations, sooner or later, the structure and the inner working of an organization are put to question. Applied to an organization development activity, action-research will help to identify the forces that hamper or facilitate any change process.PROCESS CONSULTATIONIs a particular strategy developed by Edgar Schein. It bears upon the organization processes : decision-making, communications, leadership, conflict resolution, etc... The change-agent and the client-system engage in a set of activities which helps the latter to have a better understanding of the processes at work in its own organization. The fundamental idea is « to help the client to help himself  ». The phases of the intervention are spelled out in a way that the beginning and the end of the change process may be visualized by the client-system. This approach makes use of the studies in social psychology dealing with leadership styles, communication openness, and conflict resolution methods. The organization development activity is conducted on an organization-wide scale while the effort bears on culture and processes. By helping the client to find better ways of solving problems, the strategy will in the long run tend to change the work climate of the entire organization.THE TECHNO-STRUCTURAL APPROACHTakes into account ail the major organizational and environmental variables that can explain the behavior of individuals and groups with the organization as well as the overall performance of the latter in its transaction with the environment. The major part of the organization development intervention consists of a thorough diagnostic of the strengths and weaknesses of an entire organization. The results of the diagnostic are fed back to the management at ail level in order to devise and implement a change program. The theoretical framework used in this planned effort comes from organization theories and related works which underline the impact of technology and environment on the performance of an organization. The intervention is conducted at many levels : organizational culture, structure, work groups and technology used. The objective sought is a better harmonization of the technology and the environment with the variables that characterizes the social system of a going concern.THE TRANSACTIONAL APPROACHThis strategy is a refinement of the previous one. It has been developed by Lorsh and Lawrence. The diagnostic will begin with a study of the degree of certainty and stability in the environment, the market for the product or the service being the most important variable. Once the environment is known to the people in the organization, the structure is questioned to find whether it is ad equate or not to support the kind of transactions the organization entertains with its environment. The framework used in this planned effort has been elaborated by the authors in their book Organization and Environment. Lorsh and Lawrence would leave aside a cause-effect stream of thinking to resort to a circular process which yields a better picture of the interdependencies between segments of the organization and relevant parts of the environment. The intervention would be conducted at the level of the entire organization and its environment in order to achieve a better ad equation of the structures to the requirements of a changing or stable environment.SOCIAL-ANALYSISThis particular approach has been developed by Elliot Jaques in his Consulting work at the Glacier Metal Company. The main ingredient that differentiates this strategy from the previous ones is the type of helping relationship that evolves between the consultant and the organization in the course of the intervention. The consultant would take a non-interpretative attitude and would maintain an independent role vis-à-vis his client. In helping the client to have a better awareness of his problem, the consultant would provide a non-evaluative feedback so that the client discovers by himself what is meaningful to him. A better assessment of problems and their meaning will be conducive to more adequate solutions. The client is put into a position to learn by himself to cope with the problems he faces in assuming his management responsibilities. « In essence, social-analysis requires that an individual or individuals in an organization, with a problem concerning the working of the organization, should seek the help of an analyst in sorting out the nature of the problem. The analyst is independent in the sense that he is not embroiled in the organization and its problem ; he is from outside. He offers analytical help, rather than pushing for a particular course of action » (Elliot Jaques, « Social-analysis and the Glacier Project  », Human Relations, vol. 17, 1964, p. 364). Elliot Jaques conducted his main intervention at the Glacier Metal with a background and an experience in the field of psycho-analysis. This was an « unplanned  » effort which used the knowledge and methods of clinical psychology. The purpose was to improve the working of the organization while helping people to deal with the socio-affective dimension that enters in the analysis and solution of problems pertaining to the performance of a task.THE NON-DIRECTIVE ORIENTATIONThe non-directive orientation do not differ very much from the social-analysis. Again, this is an « unplanned  » effort to bring about change in organizations. It has been developed by Max Pagès and his colleagues. The intervention is centered on self-regulation phenomena within groups and organizations. In other words, communications among members of groups may be hampered by the various perceptions, attitudes and motivations of the members and by group norms. These phenomena must be assessed in order to increase openness and trust. The help the change-agent can provide consists of mirroring in a selective manner what is meaningful for the group or the organization. Max Pagès, in working with groups, uses a conceptual scheme drawn from the Lewin's theory of quasi-stationary equilibria. Max Pagès is also familiar with the Rogerian approach in the field of clinical psychology and education. This non-directive strategy tends to improve communications within groups and organizations, to help people to solve interpersonal conflicts, and to bring changes in the culture and the work climate of the organization.It seems obvious that all effort of bringing change within organization seeks to increase its efficiency and health. The end-result is about the same ; however, some strategies seek to introduce new values in the dealing with human resources, other seek to increase the capacity for an organization to cope with changes in the environment. Differences appear among these particular strategies to the extent that a structured analytical framework is used at the beginning and in the course of each intervention. The action-research, the social-analysis, and the non-directive orientation will draw its conceptual scheme and learning material from the experience itself. Process-consultation, techno-structural and transactional strategies will tend to import learning instruments and material from the outside. Consequently, the degree of « directivity  » will differ according to the structuring of the intervention process. More research has to be done on the characteristics of the helping relationships and the evaluation of ongoing experiences in order to assess properly the similarities and differences among various strategies of organization development.

ABSTRACTI present in this paper the optimal insurance contract in an economy where the policyholder is faced with state adverse selection (also called ex post moral hazard in this context) and where the insurer is unable to commit ex ante to an auditing strategy. Insurance fraud is a typical example of this type of setup since only the policyholder knows the extent of the damage he suffered and the insurer must spend resources to verify the veracity of the policyholder's claim. Using a non-cooperative game approach, I show that replacement-cost new insurance contracts are optimal. These contracts over-indemnify policyholders in case of a loss. They also send a credible signal to the policyholder that his claims will be audited with greater probability.

The protected designation of origin (PDO) model, which has ensured the success of French wine for decades, is an exemplary form of territorial collective strategy based on a combination of cooperation/competition relationships among local players. We intend to analyze this model with the support of proximity economics, a school of thought at the intersection between industrial and spatial economics. Our purpose is to appreciate the part played by organized proximity in the economic performance of a vineyard. In a first part, we see how proximity economics can be used to analyze territory-based collective strategies in the wine industry, focusing on the so-called « terroir » strategy at the heart of French PDO vineyards. In a second part, we apply the proximity framework to the particular case of two vineyards – Cahors and Chablis. We suggest that different degrees of organized proximity entail distinct types of cooperation-competition relationships and economic records.

Keywords: AOC, Territoire, Proximité organisée, Stratégie collective, Coopétition, PDO, Territory, Organized proximity, Collective strategy, Coopetition, DOP, Territorio, Proximidad organizada, Estrategia colectiva, Coopetición

The objective of this research is to understand how the company can implement a socially responsible downsizing strategy in times of COVID-19. The aim of this study is to provide a detailed analysis of downsizing forms, emphasizing its distinctive character in southern countries. The results of our qualitative protocol, of an exploratory nature, carried out in a Tunisian hotel, revealed a mix of socially responsible measures. These high added-value practices include accountability, participation, local support, communication, professional training, union involvement and compliance with social legislation. The conclusions underlined that the implementation of a set of prerequisites and mechanisms before, during and after downsizing makes it possible to limit its psychological damage and its perverse effects. Also, they revealed that the deployment of benevolent managerial practices, fair and respectful of human dignity, as well as the adoption of an ethical guidelines have made downsizing socially tolerated. Clearly there is not a typical model or "one best way" when it comes to downsizing. The deployment of an approach rooted in local particularities is more relevant than reasoning in terms of universally applicable best practices.

Keywords: socialement responsable, GRH socialement responsable, COVID-19, recherche qualitative, management bienveillant, Socially responsible downsizing, socially responsible HRM, COVID-19, qualitative study, benevolent management

The article examines how the French territorial reforms of 2014 and 2015, which strengthened the Metropolises, are accompanied by a discursive repositioning of municipal institutional publications. The analysis of municipal newspaper editorials highlights the emergence of three municipal communication strategies. Whether they are "defensive and protective", "entrepreneurial" or "appropriative" , these strategy trends serve the legitimacy and normalization of the municipal political capacity to act, which is undermined by the government emergence of Metropolises and lead to a communicational disharmony on metropolitan territory.

Keywords: collectivités territoriales, métropolisaion, métropoles, décentralisation, positionnement, local authorities, metropolisation, metropolises, decentralization, positioning

ABSTRACTThis paper examines the mechanism of repair strategies in Generative Phonotactics, for which phonology consists of Well-Formedness Conditions and Repair Strategies which have the effect of substituting, inserting or deleting (or even inverting) segments. These conditions (WFCs) govern only automatic alternations, all other types of alternations belonging either to morphology or to the stylistic component of phonology.First, instances of WFCs of a few languages are examined in the attempt to understand how the choice and the target of a repair strategy can be determined once a WFC is violated. The principles at work seem to be the conservation of the phonological identity of the segment and the minimality of the repair. Then an analysis of Montreal diphthongization is proposed, which shows the interaction of different WFCs.

This article critiques the transit-oriented development (TOD) strategy of the Greater Montreal Area in light of the guidelines of this concept. It draws on thematic analyses of planning documents, public interventions of mayors and planners of the area and interviews with 26 of them. It shows that suburban mayors have tailored this strategy aimed at implementing the sustainable city in order to perpetuate dispersed suburbanism and expand the tax base of their municipalities. It reveals the pitfalls of the “share of dreams” and the “sirens song” of Greater Montreal's appropriation of TOD.

Keywords: transit-oriented development (TOD); ville durable; transport collectif; suburbanisme dispersé; Grand Montréal, transit-oriented development (TOD); sustainable city; public transit; dispersed suburbanism; Greater Montreal Area, transit-oriented development (TOD); ciudad sostenible; tránsito; suburbanismo dispersado; Gran Montreal

This article proposes to analyze a strategic case of failure 1001libraires.com while being based on the work devoted to the collective strategies. If the project met compared to the latter a set of economic conditions favorable to its success, it functioned only one year revealing the difficulties of management of the collective action in the profession. The semi-directing talks led near key actors of the portal, showed that the individual objectives were not from the beginning, sufficiently convergent to make the collective project viable and that this original incompatibility generated strategic choices of compromise which were in adequacy neither with the market needs nor with the mobilized financial resources.

Keywords: Echec stratégique, Etude de cas, livre, mutualisation, services numériques, stratégie collective, Book, case study, collective strategy, digitals services, mutualization, strategy failure, Fracaso estratégico, Estudio de caso, Libro, Puesta en común, Servicios digitales, Estrategia colectiva

To find out about the instructional strategies used in French classes in Quebec secondary schools that participate in the development of students' writing skills, we carried out a secondary analysis of data collected by the Description internationale des enseignements et des performances en matière d'écrits group (DIEPE, 1995) (1,815 secondary 3 students from Quebec, 300 French teachers). No instructional strategy predicts with a high degree of confidence the writing of better texts (two-level multiple regressions), but using the instructional strategy extra writing may be linked to better performance.

Keywords: stratégies pédagogiques, écriture, enseignement du français, école secondaire québécoise, régressions multiples, instructional strategies, writing, teaching of French, Quebec secondary school, multiple regressions, estrategias pedagógicas, escritura, enseñanza del francés, escuela secundaria quebequense, regresiones múltiples