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The objective of this article is to better understand the workings of expertise by turning to history. To borrow David Kennedy's expression, how do “struggles of articulation” take place? How do some experts succeed in imposing their own vision of the world and in giving out solutions to respond to ongoing crises? To reflect on these questions, we will closely look at the legal-theological debates that took place at the turn of the sixteenth century on the legitimacy of the transatlantic slave trade. We will examine how the first members of the School of Salamanca—the very ones who are considered to be the “fathers of international law”—were able to place the slave trade in the perspective of an ethic or law of commerce.
Keywords: Expertise, histoire, esclavage, traite négrière, justification, École de Salamanque, Expertise, History, Slavery, Slave Trade, Justification, School of Salamanca
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Research Framework : In a French context of widespread access to home ownership since the 1980s, rental property has long remained neglected in sociological analysis, in favor of owner-occupation analysis. Objectives : This article aims to measure the ways in which working-class families accumulate rental assets across generations and genders, and to assess the effects on social trajectories. Methodology : The article is based on a statistical analysis of Institut National de la Statistiques et des Etudes Economiques (Insee)’s “Histoire de Vie et Patrimoine” survey (2017-2018) and on interview material from 30 upper-, middle- and working-class landlords in Lille conurbation. This article focuses on 10 respondents from working-class backgrounds, one of whom is experiencing a strong upward social mobility towards the middle classes: 5 women and 5 men, aged between 43 and 75, mainly of North African immigrant origin. Results : The analysis shows the importance of hard work on self-rehabilitation and division of dwellings that unabled them to become owners and then landlords. Rental income appears as a means of stabilizing the family group’s economy, as a form of “subsistence work” (Collectif Rosa Bonheur, 2019). Being a landlord is a marker of social success for immigrant families, supporting the social mobility of their children. Equal property rights serve, after separation or death, the autonomy of women who have managed to defend their share of the estate.Conclusions : This article helps to understand the mobilization of kinship group in the context of working-class household savings, and the role of deindustrialized urban space in the creation of real estate wealth and rental income.Contribution : This article contributes to the sociology of working-class and immigrant property ownership and to the renewal of analyses on social strata.
Keywords: propriétaire bailleur, classes populaires, logement locatif, famille, genre, immigré, landlord, working class, rental housing, family, gender, immigrant, propietario, clase trabajadora, vivienda de alquiler, familia, género, inmigrante
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The European experience with the creation of the single Market and the Maastricht Treaty has shown that political pragmatism and the adoption of transparent rules, especially in budget decisions, are means to reduce the structural gap between countries. However, the enlargement to new member countries, the relaxation of fiscal discipline, the asymmetry of countries to shocks, market pressure, the differentiated fiscal policies of member countries in Europe, demonstrated with the debt crisis of Portugal, Ireland, Greece and Spain, that without clear direction in economic policy coordination, the adoption of a single currency can lead to limitations of any process of economic and monetary integration. Currency areas live cycles of success, stress and exposure to risk of bursting, if appropriate policy measures are not taken to anticipate the consequences of free riders' behaviour. Federalism is a desirable outcome to avoid this poor outcome.Our approach based on similar rules of the Maastricht Treaty, the theory of optimum currency areas combined with the clusters analysis, permit to have a global understanding of the structural heterogeneity in ECOWAS. Using Hierarchical Ascendant Classification (HAC) methods, we identify homogeneous subgroups among countries wishing to form a monetary union or clubs of convergence. In view of monetary integration, these clusters can first agree on payment arrangements and compensation to improve their experience to a common currency. This work examines the merits of the economic and monetary regrouping and identifies two groups : one relatively homogeneous – West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU), Cape Verde, Ghana–and the other in the process of consolidation at a more long-term. In optics to establish a single currency, recommendations of economic policies for each identified clusters are proposed.
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128.More information
Each of the member states of the European Economic Community (EEC) has extended, through a common agreement, its own fishing grounds to 200 miles, thus leading to the creation, since 1977, of the Community waters whose exploitation would be subjected to the common fisheries policy of the EEC. The widespread extension of fishing grounds throughout Europe together with the state of overfishing in the North-East Atlantic have led the EEC to elaborate a policy in order to protect the interests of its member states, to make their fishing vessels competitive, and to ensure the stability of the fishing industry. This paper looks into the implementation of the fisheries policy of the EEC, internally — namely access s rights to Community waters, the coordination of markets and producers, aid to modernize the vessels - as well as regarding foreign countries with whom agreements are sought in order to maintain historic fishing rights - specially in the North Atlantic - or in order to develop new fishing grounds - specially along the West African coast and in the Indian Ocean - a quarter of the EEC catch is made outside Community waters. France is deeply committed to the orientations of the EEC fisheries policy due to the importance of its fleet of trawlers fishing outside French waters and to the potential catch in the exclusive economic zone of its departments and territories overseas. The compromise signed by member states in 1983 is an important step towards the establishment of a true « Europe Fisheries ».
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