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Linking International Law (IL) and International Relations (IR) is a significant challenge in itself. In addition, the way this linkage was constructed and the use of of IL simply as to written norms hamper its development. Building on insights from IL and using a definition that captures the dynamic aspect of legal phenomena open new analytical perspectives, including the one of interpretation of international norms. We adopt this interdisciplinary approach to understand the inconsistent application of democratic clauses. The analysis of the elements of the interpretation process – the norm, the factual situation, and the interpreter – allows for distinguishing both the intervening factors and the nature of the concerned legal obligations. Different normative engagements explain how those elements combine and provide the frame for application of democratic clauses.

Keywords: interdisciplinarité, droit, Relations internationales, interprétation des normes, interdisciplinary, law, International Relations, legal interpretation, interdisciplinariedad, derecho internacional, Relaciones Internacionales, cláusulas democráticas, interpretación de normas

John Foster Dulles, then Secretary of State under the presidency of Eisenhower, once said there are two ways to conquer: by the clash of arms or through the economic control. The motto of the former WWII British SBS Commandos (Special Boat Service)used to be "United we conquer" and the one from the SAS (Special Air Service) used to be "Who dare win ", both of these commando troops or irregulars were in tactical competition framed by strategic cooperation where the light forces overcame heavier and overnumbering forces. Unity and daringness seem to be their secret weapon, but neither so secret nor so exclusive, comparatively to the recipe of tactical competition framed by strategic co-operation and coordination. "Superior numbers on the battlefield are an undoubted advantage, but skill, better organization, and training, and above all a firmer determination in all ranks to conquer at any cost, are the chief factors of success. Half-hearted measures never attain success in war and lack of determination is the most fruitful source of defeat" wrote Anthony Wilden1. The Chinese "Chii" (close to the latin "anima": heart, mind, courage) may be translated to "determination" and not by "energy" as it uses to be with the western obsession and compulsion of matter, energy and big power at the expense of high determination or "Tai Chi". The Chinese "Lii" - though its primal senses are "Law", "Rationality" and "Reason", "Rite" and "Harmony" - may be viewed as "Skill". Here, Asia is the Far East and mainly Japan, the "mother tiger" and her "baby tigers ", namely Korea (South), Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan. The ride of the dragon is oriented elsewhere and devastated Viet Nam (the smaller dragon) - by its independence wars and communist insulation and isolation - is not yet in the game. Strategy is both an organizational level of action and a type of action based on disguise, deception, uncertainty, flexibility and adaptation.

The Mulroney decade constitutes a fascinating period of domestic political continuity while the world underwent a series of dramatic transitions. As a result, the Conservatives had to alter their policies considerably to adapt to changing international conditions. Nowhere was this more evident thon in the realm of defence policy. Initially, the Conservatives unveiled an ambitious Defence White Paper designed to bridge a growing "commitment-capability gap". This program was conceived of as a response to the international imperatives of both the Cold War and Canada's strained relationship with the United States. Mulroney's aggressive approach to defence policy was quickly undermined, however, by both the end of the Cold War and domestic political transitions, which made reducing the budgetary deficit the government's foremost priority\ As a result, the Conservatives scaled back their defence plans considerably. This episode suggests that, unlike in other policy areas, in the realm of defence policy the horizons of Canadian defence policy contracted significantly during the Mulroney era.

Latin American regionalisms are now facing a period of crisis. Mercosur and Unasur are paralyzed, largely due to the crises in Venezuela and Brazil. The Andean Community of Nations is also facing strong competition from the Pacific Alliance and the effects of its past management mistakes (financial and strategic). In the face of these upheavals due primarily to profound changes on the national scenes caused by shifting politics and political and/or economic crises, Central America and its regional initiatives appear less affected by the risks facing the southern continent. In this article, we explain the nature and recent transformations of regionalism in Central America.

Keywords: régionalisme, Amérique centrale, pragmatisme, convergence, Système d'intégration centraméricain, Sica, regionalism, Central America, pragmatism, convergence, Sica, regionalismo, América Central, pragmatismo, convergencia, SICA

AbstractChina is one among many other countries that have recognised the necessity in aligning national scientific progress with that of global development. As China is striding along the path of scientific development with determination and initial success, a key concern confronted by international scientific community is how China will transform existing global scientific atlas. Based on a project carried out in six Chinese cities, this paper mainly employs Ulrich Beck's cosmopolitan theory in examining China's life sciences' development in the last decade to investigate how Chinese stakeholders have developed a (cosmopolitan) sensibility to rival ways of scientific reasoning, and in what way Chinese stakeholders have contributed to the cosmopolitanization of science.

Keywords: Chine, développement scientifique, gouvernance mondiale, cosmopolitisme, China, scientific development, global governance, cosmopolitanism

Borders, conventional lines tracing the limits of political territories, work more and more as network devices. However, we witness a multiplication of material artifact in these spaces, which meaning is complex. Here, we aim at understanding both the closing up of border landscape by walls and the multiplication of art works on and around these symbolic lines. The illustration by the analysis of the USA/Mexico landscape and “artscape” allows us to evidence the theoretical “visual turn” which this article explores.

Keywords: frontières, sécurité, murs, coopération, territorialité, regard, simulacre, borders, security, walls, cooperation, spatiality, gaze, simulacrum, fronteras, seguridad, muros, cooperación, territorialidad, mirada, simulacro