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Our aim in this article is to identify the major transnational actors and to describe how they have influenced Latin American politics and development from the 1950s to the present. Transnational actors are defined as those collective actors (here non-governmental) whose membership and activities are transnational. Specifically ex-amined are the multinationals, the Catholic Church, international labor confederations, and guerrilla movements. The historical context within which we study these actors has two periods : early import substitution (1954-65) and late import substitution and export substitution (1965 to present). In each period the state pursue s a development strategy with the support of particular class alliances. For each period we describe how the transnational actors contribute to the successes and failures of these strategies. The causal relations are also reciprocal, for the actors evolve and adapt to the changing developmental context. For example, the multinationals shift from raw material extraction to manufacturing while the Church shifts from conservatism to the theology of liberation. The general trends in the activities of transnational actors over the post war period are interpreted with respect to the twin polarities of the development process : opression - liberation, integration - autonomy.

African management today, essentially characterized by a traditional style of management (whereby managers act on behalf of and for the group from which they originated) as well as a personal style of management (whereby authority and decision-making are concentrated in the hands of an omnipresent company head) is the main reason for the failure in Africa of companies which too often are unviable, non-competitive and short-lived. This type of management should therefore disappear and be rapidly replaced by a new and real African management, which though not denying African cultural specificities, would associate them with principles of rigour, rationality and method. These principles characterize western management, but their value and efficiency must be regarded as universal.

The purpose of the present paper is to move closer to two registers of knowledge : SMEs' offshoring and SMEs' networks. In order to, the Uppsala model and isomorphism concept to highlight the role of networks, inter-organizational or interpersonal, on SMEs' offshoring decisions.This analysis of the literature will be confronted to a qualitative study realized on two SMEs belonging to the same network.The results shows that networks can encourage a SMEs' offshoring-induced via a mimetic isomorphism and can stop this strategy via a coercive isomorphism.

Keywords: Effet réseau, PME, Délocalisation, Modèle Uppsala, Isomorphisme, Network effects, SMEs, Offshoring, Uppsala model, Isomorphism, Efecto de red, PyME, Deslocalizacion, Modelo de Uppsala, Isomorphismo

The contributions of the social economy, general cooperation and specific co-operation among co-operatives have been significant aspects of the development on the islands of Lamèque-Miscou since 1930 and 1940. This study presents the importance of co-operation among fisheries, consumers and financial services co-operatives in developing other collective enterprises or associations. This research has collected information through Annual Reports, semi-directed interviews and focus groups. We show that the mobilization of co-operatives in partnership with municipalities and governmental agencies has provided monetary and human investments in a wide spectrum of sectors: housing, arts and culture, leisure, renewable energy and environment protection initiatives. This accomplishment demonstrates the resilience of social economy, co-operatives and social enterprises and their remarkable contribution to territorial development.

Keywords: Économie sociale, coopératives, intercoopération, Lamèque-Miscou, développement local, développement territorial, innovation, Social economy, co-operatives, co-operation among co-operatives, Lamèque-Miscou, local development, territorial development, innovation

Environmental degradation is one of the most crucial issues of the moment, and the mechanisms and strategies to contain it still give rise to a number of heated debates. One of the preferred approaches to curb this phenomenon therefore remains the resilience that allows degraded ecosystems to regain relatively their initial ecological integrity. However, the contribution of women, who are among the most vulnerable and most affected by this degradation, is still poorly documented and therefore very poorly valued. The great majority of scientific productions within the interfaces between feminism and ecology, although they are constructive, remain very tainted by a sort of battle of dualism, common to a certain scientific discourse, the method of which seems to us somewhat outdated. Eroding the very basis of the immense contribution of these scientific approaches to the question. It therefore seems urgent and pertinent to capitalize these contributions in a single approach based on a reflection of complex thought and its place in the interface between feminism and ecology, an approach that we will refer to here as "ecofeminism of complexity". This proposal Seems to us all the more relevant in that it will make it possible to define a platform for the valorisation and capitalization of women's initiatives for the positive transformation of ecosystems, in this case (for the purposes of this article) the resilience experience of women market gardeners of the Mbao classified forest in the Dakar suburbs of Senegal.

Keywords: écosystème forestier, femmes, rapport femme-forêt, écoféminisme, la complexité, forest ecosystem, women, woman and forest, écofeminism, complexity

The decade following the collapse of the Eastern bloc has led various reformulations of the project of a liberal international order. It also led to the updating of the Enlightenment philosophical project, particularly with respect to Kant's philosophy of history which envisaged the establishment of a confederation of cosmopolitan democratic republics. However, recent literature on the concept of empire and imperialism reminded us that there are reasons to be suspicious at the site of the political economy of cosmopolitan discourse. This tension between tradition and cosmopolitan sociological certain positions such as those contained in the Marxist tradition is not new. This article deals with the genesis of this tension and try to formulate the three main challenges facing an update of the cosmopolitan tradition that seeks to take account of contemporary developments in various sectors of the social sciences.

Keywords: cosmopolitisme, Kant, Marx, sociologie historique, mondialisation, cosmopolitanism, Kant, Marx, historical sociology, globalization, cosmopolitismo, Kant, Marx, sociología histórica, mundialización