Résumés
Abstract
The use of instream structures to modify aquatic habitat has a long history in the United States. Pioneering work by wealthy landowners in the Catskills region of New York produced a range of designs in the decades preceding the Great Depression in an effort to replenish fish populations depleted from overfishing. The scientific evaluation of structures began in 1930. Within two years, a Michigan research team claimed improved fish populations. Cheap labor and government-sponsored conservation projects spearheaded by the Civilian Conservation Corps allowed the widespread adoption of the techniques in the 1930s, before adequate testing of the long-term impact of the devices. The start of World War II temporarily ended the government conservation efforts and prevented the continued evaluation of structures. During the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s, designs of instream structures remained essentially unchanged. Meanwhile, the small number of evaluations of the impact of the structures often were flawed. The continued use of early designs of instream structures helped instill a false belief that instream structures were proven to be a benefit to fish. Even modern use of instream structures continues to rely on the basic blueprints developed in the Catskills, despite documented problems with the use of these designs.
Résumé
L’emploi de structures aménagées dans le lit des rivières visant à modifier l’habitat aquatique a une longue histoire aux États-Unis. Des travaux pionniers effectués par de riches propriétaires terriens dans la région des Catskills (État de New York) ont entraîné l’élaboration d’un éventail de designs durant les décennies qui ont précédé la Grande Dépression ; ceux-ci visaient le rétablissement des populations de poissons lourdement touchées par une pêche excessive. L’évaluation scientifique de ces structures a débuté en 1930. En moins de deux ans, une équipe de recherche du Michigan a déclaré avoir obtenu un accroissement des populations de poissons. Dans les années 1930, une main-d’oeuvre bon marché et des projets de conservation subventionnés par le gouvernement et supervisés par le Civilian Conservation Corps ont concouru à étendre à grande échelle l’emploi des techniques du Michigan et ce, avant même qu’une évaluation adéquate des effets à long terme de tels dispositifs ne soit complétée. Le début de la Seconde Guerre mondiale a temporairement interrompu les efforts de conservation gouvernementaux et a empêché l’évaluation suivie des structures en place. Durant les années 1940, 1950 et 1960, le design de ce type de structures est demeuré pratiquement inchangé et les quelques recherches réalisées pour évaluer leur impact se sont souvent révélées erronées. L’usage continu de ces dispositifs primitifs a contribué à corroborer la fausse croyance selon laquelle leur effet bénéfique sur les poissons était démontré. Même maintenant, l’utilisation de ces structures aménagées dans les cours d’eau continue à reposer sur les plans rudimentaires élaborés autrefois dans les Catskills, malgré les problèmes relatés dans la littérature quant à leur emploi.
Zusammenfassung
In den Vereinigten Staaten hat die Anwendung von instream Strukuturen zur Verbesserung des Wasserbiotops eine lange Geschichte. Die erste veröffentlichte Anwendung von solchen Konstruktionen in den Vereinigten Staaten fand in der Catskills Gegend von New York statt. In den Jahrzehnten vor der Großen Depression brachte die Pionierarbeit reicher Großgrundbesitzer eine Reihe von Entwürfen hervor. Die wissenschaftliche Auswertung dieser Strukturen begann jedoch erst in den dreißiger Jahren in Michigan. Innerhalb von zwei Jahren vermeldete das Michigan-Forschungsteam große Erfolge bei der Erhaltung der Fischbestände. Noch bevor die notwendige Überprüfung der langfristigen Wirkungsweise in Michigan abgeschlossen wurde, ermöglichten billige Arbeitskräfte sowie die durch die Regierung unterstützten Naturschutzprojekte unter der Leitung des “Bürgerlichen Naturschutzbunds” (Civilian Conservation Corps) die weitverbreitete Übernahme der Michiganer Methoden. Den Naturschutzbemühungen der Regierung setzte der Ausbruch des Zweiten Weltkrieges ein vorläufiges Ende und verhinderte die weiteren Auswertungen der schon installierten Strukturen. In den vierziger, fünfziger und sechzsiger Jahren blieb der Entwurf von instream Strukturen im Grunde unverändert. Unterdessen waren die wenigen Studien, die zur Auswertung der Wirkungsweise von instream Strukturen durchgeführt wurden, oft mangelhaft. Die fortgesetzte Anwendung von ähnlichen Struktur-Entwürfen aus den dreißiger bis sechzsiger Jahren trug dazu bei, daß sich die falsche Überzeugung etablierte, wonach instream Strukturen den Wasserbeständen von erwiesem Vorteil seien. Auch die moderne Anwendung von instream Sturkturen verläßt sich weiterhin auf die Grundentwürfe aus den Catskills, trotz der belegten Probleme mit der Anwendung solcher Pläne.
Parties annexes
References
- Aitken, W.W., 1935. Iowa stream improvement work. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 65: 322-333.
- Anonymous, 1876. The fish way. Scientific American, 35: 275.
- ____ 1906. About Kingfishers. Forest and Stream, 67: 338.
- Armistead, W.H., 1920. Trout Waters: Management and Angling. A&C Black Ltd., London, 195 p.
- Arthur, M.B., 1936. Fish Stream Improvement Handbook. U.S. Forest Service, Washington, D.C., 33 p.
- Babcock, W.H., 1986. Tenmile Creek: A study of stream relocation. Water Resources Bulletin, 22: 405-415.
- Barton, J.R. and Cron, F.W., 1979. Restoration of Fish Habitat in Relocated Streams. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, FHWA-IP-79-3, Washington, D.C., 63 p.
- Brookes, A., 1995. Challenges and objectives for geomorphology in U.K. river management. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 20: 593-610.
- Brookes, A., Knight, S.S. and Shields, F.D., 1996. Habitat enhancement, p. 103-126. In A. Brookes and F.D. Shields, eds., River Channel Restoration: Guiding Principles for Sustainable Projects. John Wiley, London, 433 p.
- Brookes, A. and Shields, F.D., eds., 1996a. River Channel Restoration: Guiding Principles for Sustainable Projects. John Wiley, London, 433 p.
- ____1996b. Perspectives on river channel restoration, p. 1-19. In A. Brookes and F.D. Shields, eds., River Channel Restoration: Guiding Principles for Sustainable Projects. John Wiley, London, 433 p.
- Burger, H., 1932. The partnership of wood and water. American Forests, 38: 197-201.
- Cheney, A.N., 1900. A natural hatchery for trout. Forest and Stream, 54: 70.
- Cliff, E.P., 1969. Wildlife Habitat Improvement Handbook. U.S. Forest Service, FSH 2609.11, Washington, D.C., 146 p.
- Cooper, C.M. and Knight, S.S., 1987. Fisheries in man-made pools below grade-control structures and in naturally occurring scour holes of unstable streams. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 42: 370-373.
- Cumings, E.M., 1932. Better trout fishing. Outdoor America, 10: 26-31.
- Davis, H.S., 1935. The purpose and value of stream improvement. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 64: 63-67.
- Ehlers, R., 1956. An evaluation of stream improvement devices constructed eighteen years ago. California Fish and Game, 42: 203-217.
- Emerson, J.W., 1971. Channelization: A case study. Science, 173: 325-326.
- Feast, C.N., Jr., 1938. Stream improvement and fish planting plans in the National Forests of the Central Rocky Mountain Region. Transactions of the Third North American Wildlife Conference (Baltimore, Maryland), 3: 428-432.
- Fechner, R., 1936. Memorandum for the Press: November 29, 1936. Emergency Conservation Work, E.C.W. 127211, Washington, D.C.,8 p.
- Forbes, S.A., 1910. The investigation of a river system in the interest of its fisheries. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 40: 179-193.
- Frissell, C.A. and Nawa, R.K., 1992. Incidence and causes of physical failure of artificial habitat structures in streams of western Oregon and Washington. North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 12: 182-197.
- Gee, M.A., 1952. Stream Improvement Handbook. U.S. Forest Service, Washington, D.C., 21 p.
- Gilbert, M., 1881. Shaw’s Fishway. Forest and Stream, 16: 411.
- Gilvear, D.J., 1999. Fluvial geomorphology and river engineering: future roles utilizing a fluvial hydrosystems framework. Geomorphology, 31: 229-245.
- Greeley, J.R., 1935. Progress of stream improvement in New York State. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 65: 316-322.
- Greeley, J.R. and Tarzwell, C.M., 1932. How Michigan is making better trout streams. American Forests, 38: 460-480.
- Haltiner, J.P., Kondolf, G.M. and Williams, P.B., 1996. Restoration approaches in California, p. 291329. In A. Brookes and F.D. Shields, eds., River Channel Restoration: Guiding Principles for Sustainable Projects. John Wiley, London, 433 p.
- Hamilton, J.B., 1989. Response of juvenile Steelhead to instream deflectors in a high gradient stream, p. 149-158. In R.E. Gresswell, B.A. Barton and J.L. Kershner, eds., Practical Approaches to Riparian Resource Management: An Educational Workshop. U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Billings, 193 p.
- Hazzard, A.S., 1937. Results of stream improvement work in Michigan. Transactions of the Second North American Wildlife Conference (Washington, D.C.), 2: 620-624.
- Heins, D.C. and Matthews, W.J., 1987. Historical perspectives on the study of community and evolutionary ecology of North American stream fishes, p. 3-7. In W.J. Matthews and D.C. Heins, eds., Community and Evolutionary Ecology of North American Fishes. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 310 p.
- Henshall, J.A., 1906. Fish and irrigation ditches. Forest and Stream, 67: 338.
- Hewitt, E.R., 1931. Better Trout Streams: Their Maintenance with Special Reference to Trout Habits and Food Supply, Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 140 p.
- ____ 1934. Hewitt’s Handbook of Stream Improvement, The Marchbanks Press, New York, 82 p.
- House, R.A. and Boehne, P.L., 1986. Effects of instream structures on salmonid habitat and populations in Tobe Creek, Oregon. North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 6: 38-46.
- Hubbs, C.L., 1931. Fisheries research in Michigan. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 60: 182-186.
- ____ 1932. The improvement of trout streams. American Forests, 38: 394-431.
- ____ 1937. Fish management: Looking forward. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 66: 51-55.
- Hubbs, C.L, Greeley, J.R. and Tarzwell, C.M., 1932. Methods for the improvement of Michigan trout streams. Institute for Fisheries Research. Bulletin of the Institute for Fisheries Research, 1, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 54 p.
- Hubbs, C.L., Tarzwell, C.M. and Eschmeyer, R.W., 1933. C.C.C. stream improvement work in Michigan. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 63: 404-414.
- Hunt, R.L., 1976. A long-term evaluation of trout habitat development and its relation to improving management-related research. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 105: 361-364.
- Hunter, C.J., 1991. Better Trout Habitat, Island Press, Washington, D.C., 320 p.
- Hunter, G.W., III, Thorpe, L.M. and Grosvenor, D.E., 1941. An attempt to evaluate the effects of stream improvement in Connecticut. Transactions of the Fifth North American Wildlife Conference (Washington, D.C.), 5: 276-291
- Ingraham, H.A., 1926. American Trout Streams, The Anglers’ Club of New York, New York, 139 p.
- Iversen, T.M., Kronvang, B., Madsen, B.L., Markmann, P. and Nielsen, M.B., 1993. Re-establishment of Danish streams: Restoration and maintenance measures. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 3: 73-92.
- Keller, E.A., 1975. Channelization: A search for a better way. Geology, 86: 246-248.
- Keller, E.A. and Swanson, F.J., 1979. Effects of large organic material on channel form and fluvial processes. Earth Surface Processes, 4: 361-380.
- Kondolf, G.M., 1995. Five elements for effective evaluation of stream restoration. Restoration Ecology, 3: 133-136.
- Kondolf, G.M. and Downs, P.W., 1996. Catchment approach to planning channel restoration, p. 129-148. In A. Brookes and F.D. Shields, eds., River Channel Restoration: Guiding Principles for Sustainable Projects. John Wiley, London, 433 p.
- Kondolf, G.M. and Micheli, E.R., 1995. Evaluating stream restoration projects. Environmental Management, 19: 1-15.
- Kylie, H.R., Hieronymus, G.H. and Hall, A.G., 1937. CCC Forestry. Office of Education, Washington, D.C., 218 p.
- Leach, G.C., 1919. Culture of Rainbow Trout and Brook Trout in Ponds. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries, Economic Circular, 41, Washington, D.C., 19 p.
- Leonard, J.W., 1940. Some comments on stream improvement in Michigan. Michigan Conservation, 10: 6, 7, 10.
- Leopold, L.B., Wolman, M.G. and Miller, J.P., 1964. Fluvial Processes in Geomorphology, Dover Publications, New York, 522 p.
- Lord, R.F., 1935. The 1935 trout harvest from Furnace Brook, Vermont’s “Test Stream”. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 65: 224-233.
- MacDonald, M., 1883. The Columbia Dam fishway. Forest and Stream, 21: 330.
- ____ 1884. A new system of fishway-building. Forest and Stream, 21: 457-458.
- Madsen, M.J., 1938. A preliminary investigation into the results of stream improvement in the intermountain forest region. Transactions of the Third North American Wildlife Conference (Baltimore, Maryland), 3: 497-503
- Meehan, W.E., 1905. Pennsylvania Fisheries Department. Forest and Stream, 64: 159.
- Mottram, J.C., 1928. Trout Fisheries: Their Care and Preservation, Herbert Jenkins, London, 186 p.
- Muhar, S., 1996. Habitat improvement of Austrian rivers with regard to different scales. Regulated Rivers: Research and Management, 12: 471-482.
- National Research Council, 1992. Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems: Science, Technology and Public Policy. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 552 p.
- New York Times, 1887. Fish and Protection. Forest and Stream, 29: 168.
- Norton, S.N., 1880. The McCloud River Dam. Forest and Stream, 14: 146.
- Nunnally, N.R., 1978. Stream renovation: An alternative to channelization. Environmental Management, 2: 403-411.
- Olson, A.D. and West, J.R., 1989. Evaluation of instream fish habitat restoration structures in Kalamath River tributaries, 1988/1989. U.S. Forest Service, Annual Report for Interagency Agreement, 14-16-0001-09608, Treka, 36 p.
- Osburn, R.C., 1923. Natural and artificial conditions detrimental to the black bass. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 53: 27-40.
- Otis, M.B., 1974. Stream improvement, p. 99-122 In J.M. Migel, ed., The Stream Conservation Handbook. Crown Publishers, New York, 242 p.
- Parry, E.A., 1932. And I in Arcadia. American Forests, 38: 326-328.
- Richardson, E.V., Simons, D.B. and Julien, P.Y., 1990. Highways in the River Environment. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, McLean, 555 p.
- Riley, A.L., 1998. Restoring Streams in Cities, Island Press, Washington, D.C., 423 p.
- Rogers, W.H., 1888. The Rogers fishway. Forest and Stream, 29: 506-508.
- Rosgen, D. and Silvey, H.L., 1996. Applied River Morphology, Wildland Hydrology, Pagosa Springs, 380 p.
- Saunders, J.W. and Smith, M.W., 1962. Physical alteration of stream habitat to improve brook trout production. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 82: 185-188.
- Schley, B., 1971. A Century of Fish Conservation. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C., 4 p.
- Sear, D.A., 1994. River restoration and geomorphology. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 4: 169-177.
- Seehorn, M.E., 1985. Fish Habitat Improvement Handbook. U.S. Forest Service Southern Region, Technical Publication, R8-TP 7, Atlanta, 30 p.
- ____ 1992. Stream Habitat Improvement Handbook. U.S. Forest Service, Southern Region, Technical Publication, R8-TP 16, Atlanta, 30 p.
- Shetter, D.S., Clark, O.H. and Hazzard, A.S., 1946. The effects of deflectors in a section of a Michigan trout stream. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 76: 248-278.
- Shields, F.D., Cooper, C.M. and Knight, S.S., 1995. Experiment in stream restoration. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 121: 494-502.
- Surface, H.A., 1902. Natural preservation of fishes. Forest and Stream, 59: 374.
- Swales, S., and O’Hara, K., 1980. Instream habitat devices and their use in freshwater fisheries management. Journal of Environmental Management, 10: 167-179.
- Tarzwell, C.M., 1935. Progress in lake and stream improvement. Transactions of the Twenty-first American Games Conference, 21: 119-134.
- ____ 1936. Experimental evidence of the value of trout stream improvements. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 66: 177-187.
- ____ 1938. An evaluation of the methods and results of stream improvement in the Southwest. Transactions of the Third North American Wildlife Conference (Baltimore, Maryland), 3: 339-364.
- Thompson, D.M., 2002. Long-term effect of instream habitat-improvement structures on channel morphology along the Blackledge and Salmon Rivers, Connecticut, USA. Environmental Management, 29: 250-265.
- Thorne, C.R., Hey, H.D. and Newson, M.D., 1997. Applied Fluvial Geomorphology for River Engineering and Management, John Wiley, New York, 376 p.
- Trexler, H.C., 1897. Pennsylvania Commission. Forest and Stream, 49: 250.
- Van Cleef J.S., 1885. How to restore our trout streams. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 14: 50-55.
- Van Put, E., 1996. The Beaverkill: The History of a River and Its People, Lyons & Burford, New York, 298 p.
- Van Zyll De Jong, M.C., Cowx, I.G. and Scruton, D.A., 1997. An evaluation of instream habitat restoration techniques on salmonid populations in a Newfoundland stream. Regulated Rivers: Research and Management, 13: 603-614.
- Wheeler, R., 1888. Buffalo Creek. Forest and Stream, 30: 293.
- White, R.J. and Brynildson, O.M., 1967. Guidelines for Management of Trout Stream Habitat in Wisconsin, Department of Natural Resources, Technical Bulletin 39, Madison, 66 p.
- Williams, G.P. and Wolman, M.G., 1985. Effects of dams and reservoirs on surface-water hydrology: Changes in rivers downstream from dams, p. 83-88. In National Water Summary 1985, U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper, 1985, Washington, D.C., 391 p.
- Y, X., 1887. Save the streams. Forest and Stream, 29: 49.