Abstracts
Abstract
This study reports on how one can examine a second language (L2) speech corpus in order to define which of many possible features of L2 utterance fluency (i.e., speech fluidity) should be the focus of an L2 fluency gains investigation. Participants were 100 adult English-speakers enrolled in a French immersion program. Data from 50 randomly selected participants were assigned to Sample A for Analysis 1 and the remainder to Sample B for Analysis 2. In Analysis 1, 23 candidate speech features, drawn from the literature at large, were examined in Sample A through a series of logical and statistical steps and systematically reduced to four features as constituting a core set of L2 utterance fluency features. In Analysis 2, these four features were examined in the Sample B corpus for gains after 5 weeks of immersion. Results indicated strong gains on all four. In Analysis 3, by way of replication, we reversed the process by using the Sample B data to first define the target fluency features and then the Sample A data to test for fluency gains. The main results replicated those of Analyses 1 and 2. The four features that emerged as core L2 utterance fluency features were mean syllable run length and mean phonation run length between silent pauses, and mean syllable duration and mean silent pause duration. Mean filled pause duration did not meet the criteria for belonging to the same fluency construct. Overall, the results showed that it is possible (a) to operationally define L2 fluency markers without reference to fluency gains, and (b) to then use these fluency markers to study L2 fluency gains without the gains data having shaped the operational definition of fluency in the first place, thereby avoiding the circularity of post hoc identification of relevant variables.
Keywords:
- second language,
- utterance fluency,
- oral fluency,
- development of oral competence,
- adult immersion
Résumé
Cette étude rapporte une méthode qui peut être utilisée pour examiner un corpus de parole en langue seconde dans le but de déterminer les variables parmi toutes celles présentées dans la littérature sur l’aisance à l’oral énonciative en langue seconde (c.-à-d. la fluidité de la parole) qui devraient être au centre des recherches portant sur le développement de l’aisance à l’oral en L2. Les participants étaient 100 adultes anglophones qui ont complété un programme d’immersion française. Les données de 50 participants sélectionnés au hasard ont été assignées à l’Échantillon A et celles des autres 50 participants à l’Échantillon B. En lien avec la première analyse, 23 variables de parole candidates, tirées de la littérature sur le sujet, ont été examinées dans l’Échantillon A à travers une série d’analyses logiques et statistiques et ont été systématiquement réduites à 4 variables fondamentales pour représenter l’aisance à l’oral énonciative en langue seconde. En lien avec la deuxième analyse, ces 4 variables ont été examinées dans le corpus de l’Échantillon B pour observer les gains après 5 semaines d’immersion. Les résultats indiquent des gains robustes pour les 4 variables. En lien avec la troisième analyse, en utilisant la réplication, nous avons renversé le processus en sélectionnant les données de l’échantillon B pour déterminer les variables fondamentales représentant l’aisance à l’oral énonciative en langue seconde et celles de l’échantillon A pour observer les gains en aisance à l’oral. Les résultats principaux ont répliqué ceux des deux premières analyses. Les 4 variables qui ont émergé des analyses comme étant fondamentales sont la longueur moyenne de l’énoncé en syllabe, le temps moyen de phonation entre les pauses silencieuses, la durée moyenne de la syllabe et la durée moyenne de la pause silencieuse. La durée moyenne des pauses remplies n’a pas répondu aux critères pour appartenir au même construit d’aisance à l’oral. De façon général, les résultats indiquent qu’il est possible (a) de définir de façon opérationnelle les variables qui représentent l’aisance à l’oral en langue seconde sans référer aux gains, et (b) d’utiliser ces variables pour étudier les gains en aisance à l’oral en langue seconde par la suite sans que ces derniers influencent la conception de la définition opérationnelle de l’aisance à l’oral au départ dans le but d’éviter la circularité des analyses post hoc pour identifier les variables pertinentes.
Download the article in PDF to read it.
Download
Appendices
Bibliography
- Boersma, P., & Weenink, D. (2007). Praat (Version 4.5.25) [Software]. Retrieved from www.praat.org
- Bosker, H. R., Quené, H., Sanders, T., & De Jong, N. H. (2014). Native “um”s elicit prediction of low-frequency referents, but non-native “um”s do not. Journal of Memory and Language, 75, 104-116. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2014.05.004
- Clark, H. H., & Fox Tree, J. E. F. (2002). Using uh and um in spontaneous speaking. Cognition, 84(1), 73-111.
- Cucchiarini, C., Strik, H., & Boves, L. (2000). Quantitative assessment of second language learners’ fluency by means of automatic speech recognition technology. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 107(2), 989-999.
- Cucchiarini, C., Strik, H., & Boves, L. (2002). Quantitative assessment of second language learners’ fluency: Comparisons between read and spontaneous speech. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 111(6), 2862. http://doi.org/10.1121/1.1471894
- De Jong, N. H., & Bosker, H. R. (2013). Choosing a threshold for silent pauses to measure second language fluency. In R. Eklund (Ed.), Proceedings of disfluency in spontaneous speech (pp. 17-20). Stockholm, Sweden: Royal Institute of Technology (KTH).
- De Jong, N. H., Schoonen, R., & Hulstijn, J. H. (2009, July). Fluency in L2 is related to fluency in L1. Paper presented at the Seventh International Symposium on Bilingualism (ISB7), Utrecht, Netherlands.
- De Jong, N. H., Steinel, M. P., Florijn, A. F., Schoonen, R., & Hulstijn, J. H. (2012). Facets of speaking proficiency. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34(01), 5-34. http://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263111000489
- Derwing, T. M., Rossiter, M. J., Munro, M. J., & Thomson, R. I. (2004). Second language fluency: Judgments on different tasks. Language Learning, 54(4), 655-679.
- Freed, B. (2000). Is fluency, like beauty, in the eyes (and ears) of the beholder? In H. Riggenbach (Ed.), Perspectives on fluency (pp. 243-265). Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.
- Freed, B. F., Segalowitz, N., & Dewey, D. P. (2004). Context of learning and second language fluency in French: Comparing regular classroom, study abroad, and intensive domestic immersion programs. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26(02), 275-301.
- García-Amaya, L. (2009). New findings on fluency measures across three different learning contexts. In J. Collentine, B. A. Lafford, M. García, & F. Marcos Marín (Eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 11th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. Retrieved from www.lingref.com, document #2203
- Ginther, A., Dimova, S., & Yang, R. (2010). Conceptual and empirical relationships between temporal measures of fluency and oral English proficiency with implications for automated scoring. Language Testing, 27(3), 379-399.
- Hilton, H. (2009). Annotation and analyses of temporal aspects of spoken fluency. Calico Journal, 26(3), 644-661.
- Iwashita, N., Brown, A., McNamara, T., & O’Hagan, S. (2008). Assessed levels of second language speaking proficiency: How distinct? Applied Linguistics, 29(1), 24-49.
- Kawahara, S. (2010). Praat script - Calculates the duration of all intervals of all the files in a specified folder. Retrieved from http://user.keio.ac.jp/~kawahara/scripts/duration_getter.praat
- Kormos, J. (2006). Speech production and second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
- Kormos, J., & Dénes, M. (2004). Exploring measures and perceptions of fluency in the speech of second language learners. System, 32(2), 145-164.
- Lennon, P. (1990). Investigating fluency in EFL: A quantitative approach. Language Learning, 40(3), 387-417.
- Llanes, À., & Muñoz, C. (2009). A short stay abroad: Does it make a difference? System, 37(3), 353-365. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2009.03.001
- Mora, J. C., & Valls-Ferrer, M. (2012). Oral fluency, accuracy, and complexity in formal instruction and study abroad learning contexts. TESOL Quarterly, 610-641.
- O’Brien, I., Segalowitz, N., Freed, B., & Collentine, J. (2007). Phonological memory predicts second language oral fluency gains in adults. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 29(04), 557-581.
- Pawley, A., & Syder, F. H. (1983). Two puzzles for linguistic theory: Nativelike selection and natively fluency. In J. Richards & R. W. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and communication (pp. 191-226). London, United Kingdom: Longman.
- Rossiter, M. J., Derwing, T. M., & Jones, V. M. L. O. (2008). Is a picture worth a thousand words? TESOL Quarterly, 42(2), 325-329.
- Segalowitz, N. (2010). The cognitive bases of second language fluency. New York, NY: Routledge.
- Segalowitz, N. (2016). Second language fluency and its underlying cognitive and social determinants. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 54(2), 79-95. http://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2016-9991
- Segalowitz, N., & Freed, B. F. (2004). Context, contact, and cognition in oral fluency acquisition: Learning Spanish in at home and study abroad contexts. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26(02), 173-199.
- Segalowitz, N., Freed, B., Collentine, J., Lafford, B., Lazar, N., & Díaz-Campos, M. (2004). A comparison of Spanish second language acquisition in two different learning contexts: Study abroad and the domestic classroom. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 10, 1-18.
- Skehan, P. (2003). Task based instruction. Language Teaching, 36, 1-14.
- Skehan, P., Foster, P., & Shum, S. (2016). Ladders and snakes in second language fluency. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 54(2), 97-111. http://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2016-9992
- Tavakoli, P., & Skehan, P. (2005). Strategic planning, task structure and performance testing. In R. Ellis (Ed.), Planning and task performance in a second language (pp. 239-273). Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins.
- Towell, R., Hawkins, R., & Bazergui, N. (1996). The development of fluency in advanced learners of French. Applied Linguistics, 17(1), 84-119.
- Trenchs-Parera, M. (2009). Effects of formal instruction and a stay abroad on the acquisition of native-like oral fluency. Canadian Modern Language Review, 65(3), 365-393.
- Zellner, B. (1994). Pauses and the temporal structure of speech. In E. Keller (Ed.), Fundamentals of speech synthesis and speech recognition (pp. 41-62). Chichester, United Kingdom: John Wiley.