Abstracts
Abstract
This quantitative study investigated teachers’ self-efficacy for teaching online compared to teaching in-person during the COVID-19 pandemic. Teacher self-efficacy is a significant predictor of both teacher practice and student outcomes. During the pandemic, teachers were forced to suddenly shift their teaching online and as a result, many new challenges were faced. Teachers from three teaching contexts (public, private, and virtual public schools) in Ontario, Canada completed the Ohio State Teacher Efficacy Scale (OSTES) and questionnaires measuring online teaching experience and training in May–June 2020 (phase 1) and again one year later, in May–June 2021 (phase 2). Results indicated that while the perceived self-efficacy of teachers improved over the course of the study, specifically in classroom management and student engagement, their perceived self-efficacy did not reach the levels reported for self-efficacy for in-person teaching, highlighting the persisting limitations educators experience in online learning environments. Additionally, efficacy for instructional strategies had not significantly increased by phase 2, indicating a particular need of targeted instruction for future teacher education programs. These results offer insights into the kind of experience and tools teacher education programs can extend to enhance teacher preparedness, and the conditions that best encourage improvements in self-efficacy for in-service teachers.
Keywords:
- Online Teaching,
- COVID-19.,
- professional development,
- teaching efficacy
Résumé
Cette étude quantitative s’est intéressée à l’auto-efficacité des enseignants relativement à l’enseignement en ligne par rapport à l’enseignement en personne pendant la pandémie de COVID-19. L’auto-efficacité est un facteur déterminant de la pratique de l’enseignant et des résultats observés chez les élèves. Pendant la pandémie, les enseignants ont été contraints de passer subitement à l’enseignement en ligne et ont par conséquent dû surmonter de nombreux nouveaux obstacles. Des enseignants appartenant à trois environnements d’enseignement (écoles publiques, privées et publiques virtuelles) en Ontario, au Canada, ont répondu au questionnaire Ohio State Teacher Efficacy Scale (OSTES) ainsi qu’à d’autres questionnaires permettant d’évaluer l’expérience et la formation en matière d’enseignement en ligne en mai-juin 2020 (phase 1), puis un an plus tard, en mai-juin 2021 (phase 2). Les résultats indiquent que si l’auto-efficacité perçue des enseignants s’est améliorée au cours de l’étude, notamment en ce qui concerne la gestion de la classe et la participation des élèves, elle n’a pas atteint les niveaux constatés dans le cas de l’enseignement en personne. Ces données mettent en évidence le fait que les éducateurs sont toujours confrontés à des difficultés dans le cadre de l’enseignement en ligne. Par ailleurs, l’efficacité des stratégies d’enseignement n’avait pas augmenté de manière significative lors de la phase 2, ce qui laisse à penser que les programmes de formation des enseignants devront mettre en place un apprentissage à cet effet. Ces résultats donnent un aperçu du type d’expérience et d’outils que les programmes de formation des enseignants pourraient offrir pour améliorer la préparation des enseignants, et des conditions qui favorisent le plus l’amélioration de l’auto-efficacité des enseignants en exercice.
Mots-clés :
- COVID-19,
- développement professionnel,
- efficacité de l’enseignement,
- enseignement en ligne
Download the article in PDF to read it.
Download
Appendices
Biographical notes
Julia Forgie is Assistant Professor in Teaching Stream and Coordinator of the Education & Society Program at Victoria College, University of Toronto in Canada. She is also a certified primary/junior teacher in Ontario and her research interests include preservice and in-service teacher training, teaching efficacy, and online teaching and learning. Email: julia.forgie@utoronto.ca
Marguerite Wang is a Master of Arts student in the Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning and Research Assistant at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto in Canada. Her research interests include plurilingualism in classrooms, education in emergencies, linguistic minority students, and language policies through an international and comparative education lens. Email: marguerite.wang@mail.utoronto.ca
Lisa Ain Dack is Assistant Professor in Applied Psychology and Human Development at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto in Canada, where she teaches graduatelevel education students. Her research focuses on teacher and administrator professional learning, databased decision making, and educational leadership. Email: lisa.dack@utoronto.ca
Miranda Schreiber is a graduate of and research assistant at the University of Toronto in Canada. A Toronto-based writer and researcher, her work has appeared in The Globe and Mail, The Walrus, BBC, The Toronto Star, and the Canadian Medical Association Journal, to name a few. Her first novel, Iris and the Dead, is available for preorder with Bookhug Press. Email: miranda.schreiber@mail.utoronto.ca
Bibliography
- Affouneh, S., Salha, S., & Khlaif, Z. N. (2020). Designing quality e-learning environments for emergency remote teaching in coronavirus crisis. Interdisciplinary Journal of Virtual Learning in Medical Sciences, 11(2), 135–137. https://doi.org/10.30476/ijvlms.2020.86120.1033
- Allinder, R. M. (1994). The relationship between efficacy and the instructional practices of special education teachers and consultants. Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children, 17(2), 86–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/088840649401700203
- Ashton, P. T., & Webb, R. B. (1986). Making a difference: Teachers’ sense of efficacy and student achievement. Longman.
- Bandura, A. (1994). Regulative function of perceived self‐efficacy. In M. G. Rumsey, C. B. Walker, & J. H. Harris (Eds.), Personnel selection and classification (pp. 261–271). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203773918
- Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191
- Barbour, M. K. (2020). 5 minutes on K–12 online learning with…—Advice from experts to teachers in the field. In R. E. Ferdig, E. Baumgartner, R. Hartshorne, R. Kaplan-Rakowski, & C. Mouza (Eds.), Teaching, technology, and teacher education during the COVID-19 pandemic: Stories from the field (pp. 511–513). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. https://www.academia.edu/43388666/Barbour_M_K_2020_5_minutes_on_K_12_online_learning_with_Advice_from_experts_to_teachers_in_the_field
- Baroudi, S., & Shaya, N. (2022). Exploring predictors of teachers’ self-efficacy for online teaching in the Arab world amid COVID-19. Education and Information Technologies, 27(6), 8093–8110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-10946-4
- Cardullo, V., Wang, C.-h., Burton, M., & Dong, J. (2021). K–12 teachers’ remote teaching self-efficacy during the pandemic. Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning, 14(1), 32–45. https://doi.org/10.1108/jrit-10-2020-0055
- Carleton, L. E., Fitch, J. C., & Krockover, G. H. (2008). An in-service teacher education program’s effect on teacher efficacy and attitudes. The Educational Forum, 72(1), 46–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131720701603628
- Cataudella, S., Carta, S. M., Mascia, M. L., Masala, C., Petretto, D. R., Agus, M., & Penna, M. P. (2021). Teaching in times of the COVID-19 pandemic: A pilot study on teachers’ self-esteem and self-efficacy in an Italian sample. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(15), Article 8211. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18158211
- Chen, R.-J. (2010). Investigating models for preservice teachers’ use of technology to support student-centered learning. Computers & Education, 55(1), 32–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.11.015
- DeCoito, I., & Estaiteyeh, M. (2022). Transitioning to online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic: An exploration of STEM teachers’ views, successes, and challenges. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 31(3), 340–356. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-022-09958-z
- Dolighan, T., & Owen, M. (2021). Teacher efficacy for online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic. Brock Education Journal, 30(1), 95–116. https://doi.org/10.26522/brocked.v30i1.851
- Dreon, O., Ward, J., & Deemer, S. A. (2018). Investigating psychological constructs in new contexts: Understanding and measuring teacher efficacy in online classrooms. AERA Online Paper Repository. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED593058
- Eyles, A., Gibbons, S., & Montebruno, P. (2020). COVID-19 school shutdowns: What will they do to our children’s education? A CEP COVID-19 Analysis Paper, No. 001. Centre for Economic Performance, London School of Economics and Political Science. https://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/cepcovid-19-001.pdf
- Ferri, F., Grifoni, P., & Guzzo, T. (2020). Online learning and emergency remote teaching: Opportunities and challenges in emergency situations. Societies, 10(4), Article 86. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc10040086
- Gibson, S., & Dembo, M. H. (1984). Teacher efficacy scale [Data set]. APA PsycTests. https://doi.org/10.1037/t03431-000
- Gosselin, K. P., Northcote, M., Reynaud, D., Kilgour, P., Anderson, M., & Boddey, C. (2016). Development of an evidence-based professional learning program informed by online teachers’ self-efficacy and threshold concepts. Online Learning, 20(3), 178–194. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v20i3.648
- Guskey, T. R. (1988). Teacher efficacy, self-concept, and attitudes toward the implementation of instructional innovation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 4(1), 63–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/0742-051X(88)90025-X
- Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., & Bond, A. (2020, March 27). The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. Educause Review. https://er.educause.edu/articles/2020/3/the-difference-between-emergency-remote-teaching-and-online-learning
- Horvitz, B. S., Beach, A. L., Anderson, M. L., & Xia, J. (2015). Examination of faculty self-efficacy related to online teaching. Innovative Higher Education, 40(4), 305–316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-014-9316-1
- Klassen, R. M., Tze, V. M. C., & Gordon, K. M. (2011). Teacher efficacy research 1998–2009: Signs of progress or unfulfilled promise? Educational Psychology, 23, 21–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-010-9141-8
- Lee, M.-H., & Tsai, C.-C. (2010). Exploring teachers’ perceived self efficacy and technological pedagogical content knowledge with respect to educational use of the World Wide Web. Instructional Science, 38(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-008-9075-4
- Lin, C.-H., & Zheng, B. (2015). Teaching practices and teacher perceptions in online world language courses. Journal of Online Learning Research, 1(3), 275–303. https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/171055/.
- Ma, K., Chutiyami, M., Zhang, Y., & Nicoll, S. (2021). Online teaching self-efficacy during COVID-19: Changes, its associated factors and moderators. Education and Information Technologies, 26, 6675–6697. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10486-3
- Marshall, D. T., Pressley, T., & Love, S. M. (2022). The times they are a-changin’: Teaching and learning beyond COVID-19. Journal of Educational Change, 23(4), 549–557. https://www.doi.org/10.1007/s10833-022-09469-z
- Meisner, J., & McKenzie, J. M. (2023). Teacher Perceptions of Self-Efficacy in Teaching Online During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Athens Journal of Education, 10(1), 49–66. https://doi.org/10.30958/aje.10-1-3
- Martin, N. K., Sass, D. A., & Schmitt, T. A. (2012). Teacher efficacy in student engagement, instructional management, student stressors, and burnout: A theoretical model using in-class variables to predict teachers’ intent-to-leave. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28(4), 546–559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2011.12.003
- Menabò, L., Skrzypiec, G., Sansavini, A., Brighi, A., & Guarini, A. (2022). Distance education among Italian teachers: Differences and experiences. Education and Information Technologies, 27(7), 9263–9292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11008-5
- Moore-Hayes, C. (2011). Technology integration preparedness and its influence on teacher-efficacy. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 37(3). https://doi.org/10.21432/t2b597
- Muijs, D., & Reynolds, D. (2002). Teachers’ beliefs and behaviors: What really matters? Journal of Classroom Interaction, 37(2), 3–15. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23870407
- Northcote, M., Gosselin, K. P., Reynaud, D., Kilgour, P., & Anderson, M. (2015). Navigating learning journeys of online teachers: Threshold concepts and self-efficacy. Issues in Educational Research, 25(3), 319–344. https://www.iier.org.au/iier25/northcote.pdf
- Pressley, T., & Ha, C. (2021). Teaching during a pandemic: United States teachers’ self-efficacy during COVID-19. Teaching and Teacher Education, 106, Article 103465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2021.103465
- Pryor, J., Wilson, R. H., Chapman, M., & Bates, F. (2020). Elementary educators’ experiences teaching during COVID-19 school closures: Understanding resources in impromptu distance education. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, XXIII(4). https://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/winter234/pryor_young_chapman_bates234.html
- Robinia, K. A., & Anderson, M. L. (2010). Online teaching efficacy of nurse faculty. Journal of Professional Nursing, 26(3), 168–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profnurs.2010.02.006
- Rodari Meisner, J., & McKenzie, J. M. (2023). Teacher perceptions of self-efficacy in teaching online during the COVID-19 pandemic. Athens Journal of Education, 10(1), 49–66. https://doi.org/10.30958/aje.10-1-3
- Schlesselman, L. S. (2020). Perspective from a teaching and learning center during emergency remote teaching. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 84(8), Article 8142. https://doi.org/10.5688/ajpe8142
- Schultz, R. B., & DeMers, M. N. (2020). Transitioning from emergency remote learning to deep online learning experiences in geography education. Journal of Geography, 119(5), 142–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221341.2020.1813791
- Soodak, L. C., & Podell, D. M. (1993). Teacher efficacy and student problem as factors in special education referral. The Journal of Special Education, 27(1), 66–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/002246699302700105
- Teo, C. L., Tan, S. C., & Chan, C. (2021). Pedagogical transformation and teacher learning for knowledge building: Turning COVID-19 challenges into opportunities. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 47(4). https://doi.org/10.21432/cjlt28057
- Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. W. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17(7), 783–805. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0742-051X(01)00036-1
- Wang, L., Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2004). Increasing preservice teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs for technology integration. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 36(3), 231–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2004.10782414
- Yenen, E. T., & Çarkit, E. (2021). Fear of COVID-19 and general self-efficacy among Turkish teachers: Mediating role of perceived social support. Current Psychology, 42(3), 2529–2537. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02306-1
- Zagorski, K. H. (2011). A study of teaching in isolation and the effects on self-efficacy for first and second grade teachers in the online school setting [Doctoral dissertation, Capella University]. LearnTechLib. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/118245/
- Zee, M., & Koomen, H. M. Y. (2016). Teacher self-efficacy and its effects on classroom processes, student academic adjustment, and teacher well-being: A synthesis of 40 years of research. Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 981–1015. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315626801