Lithological units recognized at the mine scale of mapping and the names given them have varied over the decades, as have interpretations of structure and origin of the deposits. In part this is because the stratigraphy, even at the mine scale, is discontinuous, but also because regional and dynamic metamorphism have masked and disrupted the original appearance and composition of the rocks. However, certain general aspects of the geology are commonly accepted; for example, (a) the rocks in which the shear zone formed and the strata in the hanging wall and footwall of the shear zone were laid down in an active volcanic region that for major intervals was partly submerged; (b) the Britannia Shear Zone is a product of ductile shear deformation; and (c) most of the orebodies occur in green mottled schist and show a spatial relationship with bodies of dacite (Fig. 5).

The stratified succession in the mine area comprises two sequences, a dominantly pyroclastic sequence and an overlying argillite and siltstone sequence containing minor tuff (Sutherland-Brown and Robinson 1971; Sutherland-Brown 1975; Fig 5). A transitional interval between the sequences is characterized by mixed crystal tuff and well-bedded grey and green argillite. The upper part of the pyroclastic sequence is composed largely of dacitic, lapilli-rich pyroclastic flows and minor argillite beds, interbedded with and overlain by plagioclase crystal tuff. Andesitic dykes (and possibly some flows) were emplaced early in the evolution of the mine sequence. They are deformed and in places mineralized. Sill-like bodies of porphyritic dacite were emplaced later; they are locally slightly deformed along their margins, and weakly mineralized, probably by remobilized sulphides. Schofield (1926) and James (1929) described masses of anhydrite and gypsum in the Fairview Mine (Fig. 6), located apart from the sulphide bodies. They lie in the plane of foliation, contain no other minerals and are up to 5 m thick and 30 m long in a down dip direction. One year Britannia mined and shipped several hundred tons of gypsum from these bodies. Barite is described as a common gangue mineral in zinc-rich parts of the Jane and Fairview orebodies.

The Britannia Anticline (Fig. 7) and the Britannia Shear Zone (Fig. 4) are the principal structures in the mine area. The anticline trends north-westerly to westerly, is overturned to the northeast, and is flanked on the northeast by a sub-parallel syncline. West of the Jane Mine, where schistosity is less strongly developed than elsewhere in the shear zone, the nose of the Britannia Anticline can be observed to plunge about 20° westward (Sutherland-Brown and Robinson 1971). The Britannia Shear Zone, which also, in general terms, trends northwesterly, was superimposed on the Britannia Anticline. In the mine area, the shear zone ranges in width from 400 to 800 m and is not confined to one rock type. It is characterized by a strong southward-dipping schistosity and is bounded on both sides by southward-dipping faults, which Sutherland-Brown and Robinson (1971) suggest are en-echelon in character.

Original mineral assemblages and textures in the mine area have been altered, first by regional metamorphism to lower-greenschist facies, and then by dynamic metamorphism and metasomatism. Primary bedforms in the zone have been obliterated, except for small fragments of beds that lie sub-parallel to schistosity. Any mineral assemblages that formed as alteration haloes related to postulated pre-deformational sulphide deposition, or that formed during regional metamorphism, were modified during the episodes of dynamic metamorphism described below (Payne et al. 1980).

In mine geology terminology, the main components of the shear zone are chlorite mottled schist, quartz-sericite (chlorite) schist, bodies of schistose and fragmental andesite, and dacite dykes and sills. Chlorite mottled schist, in which most orebodies are found, is believed to be the schistose equivalent of dacitic tuffbreccias. Quartz-sericite (chlorite) schist (the ‘silver schist’ of former geologists), which does not contain orebodies, is thought to have formed from argillite by isochemical metamorphism (Sutherland-Brown and Robinson 1971).

Payne et al. (1980) recognized five stages of deformation in the mine area. The first (D₀) produced the Britannia Anticline and other flexural-slip folds (F₀) with sub-horizontal to gently plunging axes trending west-northwest. Following the development of the Britannia Anticline, successive episodes of shear deformation produced the Britannia Shear Zone and the multiple generations of textures within it. The first episode (D₁) produced a strong west-northwest trending, steeply southward dipping schistosity (S₁), defined by parallel chlorite and sericite plates and flattened lithic fragments. Small isoclinal folds with axial planar S₁ schistosity were formed during this episode. Outside the shear zone and in competent blocks within the zone that are thought to be andesitic intrusions, S₁ is present but is much less intensely developed. A subsequent episode of shear deformation produced another schistosity (S₂) that is sub-parallel to S₁ and deforms it. Late deformation (D₃ and D₄) produced a locally developed schistosity (S₃) that is parallel to northeast-trending faults, and a widespread fracture cleavage (S₄) that is locally prominent, for example, in No. 10 mine.

The shear zone is transected by a number of late faults, many of which are subparallel to the schistosity and margins of the shear zone. In the eastern part of the area a series of these faults branch off a major foot-wall fault, and in the western part of the mine area, oblique faults converge westward and upward to form a single major fault (Payne et al. 1980).

The most distinctive feature of the Britannia orebodies is that they all lay within the Britannia Shear Zone. They were distributed over a horizontal distance of approximately 3700 m and a vertical range of 1800 m (Fig. 6). The horizontal extent of known mineralization, which includes non-economic sulphide deposits northwest and southeast of the mined deposits, is about 6000 m. As the Britannia deposits were developed, the opinion formed that orebodies occurred at or near the footwall of the shear zone. However, Glen Waterman, the Anaconda geologist who examined the geological data before Anaconda purchased Britannia, concluded that seams, stringers and veins of mineralization were widespread in the shear zone (Waterman 1970). He reported that "the study clearly indicated that ore was not only localized along the footwall of the shear zone but occurred in intermediate positions between the hanging wall and footwall". The subsequently discovered 040 and No. 10 ore bodies lay some 800 feet (244 m) into the shear zone from the footwall. Orebodies occurred as massive and stringer deposits. Both types lay approximately in the plane of schistosity (S₁), although in detail they crossed the schistosity at small angles (Sutherland-Brown and Robinson 1971).

Within the deformed and altered rocks of the shear zone, possibly near the top of the pyroclastic sequence described by Sutherland-Brown and Robinson (1971) and reported above (Lithology and Structure section), Payne et al. (1980) recognized a unit of dacitic tuffs and breccias (their ‘Bluff tuff-breccia’) overlain by andesitic sedimentary and tuffaceous rocks (the term ‘possibly’ is used here because descriptions of rock units by different authors are comparable only in a general sense, not in detail). They reported that massive deposits occur along or slightly above the top of the dacitic Bluff tuff-breccia, commonly in or near cherty andesitic rocks, whereas stringer deposits occur mainly in silicified tuff-breccias below the contact of the two units. Sutherland-Brown (1975) reported that mineralization of some type is common at or near the contact between "crystal-rich dacitic pyroclastic rocks and the green andesitic siltstones" (i.e. the contact between the dacitic pyroclastic rocks and overlying argillite–siltstone sequence of Sutherland-Brown and Robinson 1971). Seemingly, Sutherland-Brown (1975) and Payne et al. (1980) were referring to the same stratigraphic interval when describing the location of mineralization.

Sutherland-Brown and Robinson (1971) described both massive and stringer orebodies as heterogeneous mixtures of sulphides, remnant host rocks and discrete veins. Near or adjacent to some orebodies, as well as elsewhere in the shear zone, sulphides occur as disseminations, bedding plane concentrations and small stringers. Horses (relict masses) of host rock recognizable as chlorite mottled schist or andesite commonly occurred within orebodies (Sutherland-Brown and Robinson 1971).

Pyrite was the main sulphide mineral in both types of orebodies, and was accompanied by much less abundant chalcopyrite and erratically distributed sphalerite and galena. Tennantite, tetrahedrite, argentite, pyrrhotite and native gold occurred sporadically and sparingly. Associated non-sulphide minerals were principally quartz, muscovite and chlorite, and in some orebodies barite and anhydrite were present.

Massive ore bodies, namely the Bluff, No. 5, No. 8 and No. 10, had a zoned structure consisting of a chalcopyrite-rich core surrounded by a lower grade copper zone and overlapping pyrite- and silica-rich zones (Sutherland-Brown and Robinson 1971). Zinc-rich ore was present in the upper central parts of some massive orebodies and gold was clearly most abundant in the massive zinc–copper bodies. Galena formed irregular inter-growths with sphalerite and was abundant in a few thin layers in zinc and copper–zinc ore (Payne et al.1980). Andesitic, tuffaceous sedimentary rocks flanking and above massive ore bodies locally contained abundant disseminated pyrite as well as anhydrite, barite and cherty zones (Payne et al. 1980).

The only ‘truly stratified’ sulphide-bearing zones were found in the Fairview Zinc orebody and in pyritic green siltstones overlying it (Sutherland-Brown 1974). The Fairview Zinc orebody was a metre-thick, sheet-like body of massive ore containing pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and thin beds and disseminations of barite. Stringer orebodies, such as the Empress and Victoria zones, consisted of veins of chalcopyrite, pyrite, and lesser quartz. They were typically associated with broad zones of silicified rock containing quartz and quartz–pyrite veins (Payne et al. 1980).

Table 1 is a compilation of some generalized features of Britannia orebodies. Some orebodies were not uniform in character; for example, No. 8 orebody graded from zinc–copper ore at the top down into copper ore, and the Bluff orebody contained both massive and stringer ore. The Beta, West Victoria, East Bluff and No. 4 orebodies (Table 1; Fig 6) were either small or else were subdivisions of principal orebodies; they are not discussed in this paper. Table 2 reports the average tenor of the different types of ore mined. It shows that, by far, most of the ore at Britannia was stringer ore. The average grade of all ore mined was approximately 1.2% Cu, 0.6% Zn and 0.6 g/t Au. Variations in tenor were sufficient to allow selective mining in response to variations in metal prices. For example, in 1943, ore reserves were divided into 3 classes, copper ore, with an average grade of 1.22% Cu, copper–gold ore, with a tenor of 0.67% Cu and 0.097 oz/ton Au, and copper–gold–zinc ore with a tenor of 1.72% Cu, 5.49% Zn and 0.04 oz/ton Au (BM&S Co. Ltd. Annual Report 1943).

Between 1963 and 1974, when Anaconda Canada operated Britannia Mines, Anaconda geologists re-logged old drill core, remapped old mine workings and mapped new mine workings that were opened during this period. They collected much more data than were previously available, and contributed significantly to the previously cited publications by Sutherland-Brown and Robinson (1971), Sutherland-Brown (1972, 1975) and Payne et al. (1980). These publications span the period during which the perceived origin of the Britannia deposits changed from a structurally controlled epigenetic model to a volcanogenic massive sulphide model.

Prior to 1970, the Britannia deposits were generally believed to have formed from hydrothermal fluids that emanated from an underlying pluton, migrated upwards through permeable zones in the shear zone and replaced susceptible rocks within the shear zone. Schofield (1926) proposed that the Bluff, Empress and Victoria deposits were located in wedges of shear zone rocks that had been faulted into black slate in the footwall of the shear zone. The impermeable slate thereby formed ‘hoods’ that trapped ore fluids rising through the permeable schist. Ebbutt (1935) suggested that fracture zones in northwesterly plunging drag folds that had developed during movement along a major fault in the footwall of the shear zone provided the loci for sulphide deposition from ore fluids that had risen along the fault zone from a deep-seated igneous source. Irving (1948) proposed that fracturing of competent green mottled schist in the hangingwall of a fault in the footwall of the shear zone allowed ore fluids to ascend along the fault to favourable loci for deposition. The spatial relationship between orebodies and dacite sills (Fig. 5) has led many authors to suggest a genetic relationship between the dacite and ore deposition.

The pre-purchase geological review and the early investigations by Anaconda mine geologists led them to support a structurally controlled model for ore deposition. When describing this early work, Waterman (1970) wrote "Ore controls appeared to be structural, with relative rock competence of greater importance than particular rock units".

Sutherland-Brown and Robinson’s (1971) paper was based on detailed surface mapping in the mine area and on data acquired by Anaconda geologists. They concluded that although there was insufficient information to ascertain the process of ore deposition, the evidence suggested that, apart from the sheet-like Fairview Zinc deposit, the orebodies were formed by replacement after the development of schistosity. They commented, however, that the deposits had "great similarity to the Keiko ore of Japanese Kuroko deposits" and suggested that the source of mineralizing fluids might have been a solfataric field. In subsequent publications, Sutherland-Brown (1972, 1975) described Britannia orebodies as massive sulphide deposits and noted that some of the massive orebodies contain, in places, textures indicative of deformation, flow and annealing.

Payne et al. (1980) pointed out that "a critical factor regarding the origin of the Britannia sulphide deposits is whether they are pre- or post-D₁ (and D₂)". In other words, which came first, sulphide deposition or the development of the first and most intense episode of shear deformation? Aided by considerably more mine geological information than was previously available, including textural and chemical data, they concluded that host rocks were initially altered by volcanogenic hydrothermal solutions associated with pre-deformation sulphide deposition. Alteration patterns that developed during subsequent deformation were imposed upon and reflect the pre-existing ore-stage alteration. In summary, they stated that the "deposits formed from hydrothermal and exhalative solutions related to contemporaneous dacitic volcanism and then deformed during later shearing and faulting." Most of the orebodies are either cut by or have contacts at or near late faults. Based on a pre-deformation reconstruction across fault zones, they suggested that the various Britannia orebodies may represent segments of two original massive sulphide deposits.

The publication by Payne et al. (1980) generated a discussion initiated by Waterman (1982) and responded to by Stone and Payne (1982). Waterman expressed the opinion that deposition occurred in structures that developed during the formation of the shear zone. In support of his opinion, he cited geological mapping on the 5900 level of No. 10 mine that showed the ore zone cutting across lithological boundaries (Fig. 8), a feature that is at odds with a model that invokes syn-genetic ore formation. Stone and Payne (1982) responded by referring to data collected by Anaconda geologists during the 1970s, most of which, in their opinion, supported a model of ore deposition in which the massive sulphide bodies were genetically related to certain felsic volcanic units in the mine sequence, and were deformed during deformation of the enclosing rocks. Both papers referred to data that were collected by Anaconda geologists and never published; they are now probably buried in Anaconda’s archives. It is unfortunate that Britannia closed before these data were published and subjected to discussion. However, regardless of how the Britannia orebodies were formed, the mining operation that they supported was a significant event in BC and Canadian mining history, and it is that subject with which the rest of this article is concerned.

Production from the Jane Mine (Fig. 12c), as recorded by smelter returns, began in 1905, although ore-grade material encountered during exploration and development work prior to 1905 was stockpiled for later processing. Shipments to the company-owned Crofton smelter in 1905 included both mill concentrates and direct shipping ore, from which 285 mt of copper were recovered. The price of copper at the time was 15.6¢/lb (34.4¢/kg), which equates to $3.08/lb ($6.79/kg) in 2010 dollars. The managing director of operations in 1905 was George Robinson.

The Jane Mine was 4.5 km east of Britannia Beach at an elevation of about 1020 m (Fig. 10). Ore was transported to the newly completed 200 tons-per-day (tpd; 180 metric tpd) mill at the Beach by a two-stage, aerial tramway 5150 m long, with a vertical drop of 980 m. The top leg of the tramway carried ore from the Jane Camp to a transfer station (the angle station) at the Halfway Camp, 435 m below (Fig. 12d). There it was transferred to the lower leg of the tramway (the legs of the tramway travelled in different directions).

This was a promising but difficult period for the young mine. Start-up problems naturally arose, the copper market was volatile, and the parent Howe Sound Co., with offices in New York, was periodically dissatisfied with operating results. In 1906, mine production and mill recovery of copper were not up to expectations because of problems with the tramway and the mill. Fortunately the mine was able to produce over 32 000 mt of direct-shipping ore that year, which partially compensated for the mill problem, and the operation remained marginally profitable. During 1907 the mill was redesigned in an attempt to improve recovery, but with disappointing results. Between 1907 and 1909 production fell to startup levels as a result of the continuing inability of the mill to produce a satisfactory concentrate, and the low price of copper (Fig. 11). Britannia was in danger of closing. However, in 1909 an exploration tunnel intersected what was to become the Fairview ore zone, and by 1911, development work, under the direction of mine manager R.H Leach, had outlined almost a million mt of 2.5 to 3% copper ore that was more amenable to concentration than the Jane ore. In 1911 Britannia was mining on six levels, and J. W. D. Moodie, who had assumed management late in 1911, was authorized by New York to make extensive improvements to the mine. One of these improvements, already started in 1909 by Leach, was a cross-cut adit that would become the 2200L haulageway, 1150 feet (350 m) below the lowest production level.

The encouraging performance of a new flotation circuit that was added to the mill in 1912 was undoubtedly a significant factor in the renewed confidence shown by the Howe Sound Co. (see the section on milling for recovery details). Production rose sharply to 212 500 mt in 1913, with ore coming from the Bluff and Fairview mines. However, in response to a sudden drop in the price of copper during late 1913 and early 1914, the Howe Sound Company ordered mining operations at Britannia to be cut back by about 50% and surface construction work to be suspended. During the month in which these cut backs were implemented – August of 1914 – World War I broke out. The price of copper suddenly rebounded and Britannia was again saved from possible closure. With the price of copper rising, a considerable volume of ore blocked out and the first phase of a new mill (No. 2) nearing completion, the future at Britannia must have appeared bright. However, in March of 1915 the Jane Camp was hit by a disastrous and deadly debris avalanche that claimed 57 lives and destroyed the top leg of the aerial tramway and many buildings (Fig. 13a, b).

A new system of ore transportation had to be put in place quickly. Fortunately, plans to close the Jane Camp and to revamp the ore transportation system had already been made, and construction was already underway. At the Tunnel townsite (Fig. 14a), so named because it was located near the portal of the recently driven 2200L adit, construction of bunkhouses and mine facilities was almost complete. An interior working shaft and an ore pass with a crushing and loading station at its bottom were raised from the 2200L adit to the Fairview mine 1148 feet (350 m) above (primary crushing continued to be done underground until the 1940s). The ore pass and the 2200L adit, which became the main haulageway, replaced the destroyed top leg of the aerial tramway. A two-stage system for transporting crushed ore from the 2200L underground loading station to the concentrator at the Beach, thereby reducing dependency on the lower leg of the tramway, was nearing completion. The first stage, a 5.6 km narrow-gauge surface electric railway between the 2200L loading station and the top of an incline 180 m below, was finished (Fig. 14b). The incline, designed to carry ore from the end of the railway down a steep slope to the mill, formed the second stage and was almost complete (Fig. 15a, b). The ‘Incline’ as it came to be known, consisted of a rail bed on which ore cars were lowered 1645 m by cable down a 27% grade to ore bins at the top of the recently completed No. 2 mill. At the top of the Incline a small camp was established that was later expanded to house miners driving the nearby 2700L adit. Near the top of the undamaged lower leg of the aerial tramway a new loading terminal was built and connected by rail to the 2200L loading station. The tramway was kept in service to deliver ore to the still operating No. 1 mill, which had been upgraded to handle 725 metric tons per day (mtpd). The damaged Jane Camp was abandoned and production resumed in June of 1915, only 3 months after the debris avalanche. The new system eliminated the high costs and inconveniences of operating the Jane Camp and the former upper leg of the tramway; it also provided better and safer accommodation at the Tunnel Camp, and facilitated the increase in production that was to follow.

However, production was interrupted again from September to December of 1915 by a shortage of hydroelectric power caused by falling water levels in the reservoirs that supplied the power plants. This necessitated steps to provide a more reliable source of power. The power facilities are described in a later section.

The WW I demand for copper, which was used in the production of brass shell casings, pushed the price of copper to an average of 29.2¢/lb by 1917. The Britannia mill came under the jurisdiction of the Imperial Munitions Board, a British agency charged with providing adequate supplies of metals for the war effort by overseeing supply and production facilities within the British Empire. Ore from the Fairview and Empress mines and from five ‘glory holes’ (open pits) in the upper Fairview mine was being carried by the new transportation system to mills 1 and 2 at the Beach. Production increased from about 200 000 mt in 1915 to 663 000 mt in 1918 and remained close to this level during the next two years, in spite of falling copper prices after the war ended. In 1916 Britannia became the largest copper mine in the British Empire (Mining and Engineering Record 1923).

Two adits that would become major haulageways beneath the main ore zones (namely the Jane, Bluff, Fairview and Empress mines; the Victoria orebodies had not yet been discovered) were begun in 1916 below the 2200L. One was collared at the 2700L adjacent to the top of the incline, and the other at the 4100L near the top of No. 2 mill (Figs. 6, 10). These adits and their associated ore passes would eventually replace the surface railway and the incline in the ore transportation system.

In 1916, construction of the Barbara Camp (Fig. 10) began at the 500 level on the southeast side of Britannia Mountain, and the Fairview and Empress mines were connected, thereby providing a second passageway through Britannia Mountain. At least four other levels would break through to the Furry Creek side of Britannia Mountain in subsequent years. Also, in 1916, the second 900 mtpd unit of Mill No. 2 was finished. The Tunnel town site became known as the Tunnel Camp about 1918.

Although mine production reached a new high in 1918, operations were hampered by the Spanish Flu pandemic, which had a tragic effect on the Britannia community (see section titled Disasters).

W. D. Moodie, who had been General Manager since 1911, retired in August, 1920. Many of the operational decisions that enabled Britannia to become such a successful mine were made under his leadership. B.B. Niedling was manager for a brief period, and later in 1920 E.J. Donohue was appointed manager. C.P. Browning became manager in 1922.

The 1920s were years of post-WW I recession. The average price of copper in 1921 was only 12.6¢/lb, a drop of 57% from its 1917 price of over 29¢/lb. The outlook for copper seemed dim, and under orders from the Howe Sound Company, production at Britannia was sharply reduced. In November of 1920 the concentrator, tramway, electric railway and incline were shut down, except to transport supplies and passengers to the Town-site. The payroll was reduced by approximately 40% and operations were confined to essential development work. Mineralization in what would become the Victoria Mine had been intersected by surface diamond drilling in 1918 and the decision to develop the deposit was made in 1921. The Victoria Camp was established on the Furry Creek side of Britannia Mountain and preparation of the Victoria deposit for production accounted for much of the limited development work that was done in 1921 and 1922. The small amount of ore extracted by development operations was stockpiled.

Elsewhere in BC, mines in the Phoenix and Copper Mountain camps, both major copper producing areas, suspended operations. The copper smelters at Greenwood, Boundary Falls and Grand Forks closed in 1918 and 1919 and, as it turned out, never reopened.

In 1921, as the price of copper was bottoming, Britannia was dealt two more serious blows. In March, the concentrator (Mill No. 2), which had been idled by the production cut-back, was destroyed by fire (Fig. 16a, b) and in October a flash flood in Britannia Creek wiped out part of the Beach community, with significant loss of life (Fig. 16c, d) (see section titled Disasters).

Production was suspended for the whole of 1922, as every effort was devoted to recovery and rebuilding under Browning’s direction. New family homes were built on a bench well above the level of Britannia Creek and a new concentrator, to be known as No. 3 mill, was constructed adjacent to the previous mill site. A significant improvement to the ore transportation system was completed in 1922, namely a 446 m long ore-pass from near the 2700L portal to the 4100L. Rather than being lowered down the incline, ore carried from the 2200L by the railroad could now be dumped through the 2700L – 4100L ore-pass and trammed on the 4100L haulage-way out to the mill storage bins (Figs. 6, 10).

Mill No. 3 (Fig. 17), with a rated capacity of 2300 mtpd, was commissioned early in 1923 and production resumed after a year of rebuilding. Although all the ore was now handled through the 2700L – 4100L ore pass, the incline was kept in operation to service the Townsite. The Victoria mine began production in 1923, but the ore travelled a circuitous route that included a short aerial tramway lift to the 1600L portal on the Furry Creek side of Britannia Mountain. However, in 1924 the 2200L adit was extended to the Victoria workings (making it 3 km long), thereby connecting the Victoria mine directly to the ore transportation system. In late 1925 or early 1926 the lower leg of the old aerial tramway that had carried ore to mills 1 and 2, and recently to No. 3 mill, was abandoned.

The surface electric railway, the last component of the ore transportation system still above ground, was eliminated from the system in 1928. During the previous two years the 2700L adit had been extended to below the Bluff and Fairview mines (making it 3.4 km long) and near its end it was linked to the 2200L by a major orepass. Ore from all the mines, which had previously been hauled out the 2200L haulageway and down to the 2700L – 4100L orepass near the 2700L portal by the surface railway, was now dumped through the new 2200L – 2700L orepass to near the end of the 2700L (Fig. 6) and then hauled about 3.3 km to a crushing chamber at the top of the 2700L – 4100L ore-pass. There it was crushed, fed down to the 4100L and hauled out to the mill. This improvement reduced costs and production delays related to snow removal on the railway (Fig. 18) and made the 2700L and 4100L adits the two main haulageways. The surface railway and the incline remained in service for transporting supplies and passengers between the Beach and the Townsite.

In 1929, the price of copper exceeded 18¢/lb, after being range-bound between 12 and 14¢/lb for 8 years. It was a good year for the mining industry. Approximately 1100 men were employed at Britannia mines, 625 underground and 470 on surface. About half the men on surface worked at the Beach and the remainder worked in the various camps. Most of the underground crew lived at the Town-site, although miners also lived at the Barbara, Empress, Victoria and Incline (2700L) camps.

In 1930 ore production at Britannia reached an all-time high of just over two million mt. The Fairview, Bluff, Empress and Victoria mines were all in production. About 20 500 mt of copper and 392 000 grams of gold were recovered. However, towards the end of 1930, Britannia, and the mining industry as a whole, began to be affected by the Great Depression.

The economic downturn that followed the Wall Street stock market crash in October 1929 quickly spread throughout the industrialized world. The demand for metals, and metal prices, plummeted. In 1930 the price of copper fell 40% in six months, and continued to fall from an average of 13¢/lb in 1930 to an average of only 5.8¢/lb in 1932. Compounding the price squeeze were protectionist trade barriers erected by Britain and the United States that affected sales of Britannia copper. As a result, production at Britannia fell from over 2 million mt in 1930 to a depression low of 598 000 mt in 1933. Elsewhere in BC, the Copper Mountain mine near Princeton, BC, which was a significant copper producer before the depression, closed in 1930. The Anyox mine, the only other important copper producer still operating in BC, maintained production but became depleted and closed in 1935.

The most difficult years of the depression for Britannia were 1932 and 1933. Operations were severely restricted but the mine survived. In 1932 the tonnage mined was 30% of that mined in 1930 and in 1933 the mill operated at only 20% of capacity. By mid 1933 the payroll had dropped to about 400, compared to an average of over 1000 in 1930. In order to minimize layoffs, men were employed in staggered shifts and were allotted a number of days of employment per month, with a degree of preference given to married men. In this way, most men with families, as well as some of the single men, kept their jobs.

Britannia adapted during the depression by mining orebodies that contained relatively high gold and zinc credits. Britannia became a copper– gold–zinc producer, and in 1933 the mill added a zinc circuit to produce zinc concentrate. While the price of gold increased from an average of US$20.72 per ounce in 1930 to US$35.00 in 1935, the price of copper decreased. Britannia responded by drawing most of its ore between 1931 and 1936 from the East Bluff orebody, which contained only 0.5% copper but had higher gold and zinc values than other orebodies. Table 3 shows the dramatic decrease in copper and the increases in gold and zinc produced between 1931 and 1937. Metal prices began to recover in 1933, and in 1936 it was decided to resume mining beyond the East Bluff and to increase both mine and mill production. Tables 3 and 4 show these changes and the accompanying changes in employment.

By 1938 production had recovered from the depression-era lows almost to the peak level of 1930, and the average payroll had increased to pre-depression levels (Table 4). But in 1941 production began to drop sharply to a 23 year low in 1946 of only 400 000 mt (Fig. 11). This large fluctuation was not caused by metal prices, which gradually increased during this period, but from labour issues. Whereas the upswing from 1934 to 1938 reflected a period of increasing employment, active mine development, the beginning of production in 1938 from No. 5 and No. 8 mines, and a high level of continuing production from the Bluff, Fairview and Victoria mines, the decline from 1941 to 1946 reflected a war-time shortage of experienced miners. Table 4 reflects these operational changes.

During the post-depression period several important changes were made to the ore transportation system. Extension of the 4100L adit had continued periodically through the depression and by 1938 the face was 4.1 km from the portal. An ore-pass raised from near the end of the 4100L adit to a point on the 2700L near the bottom of the 2200L – 2700L orepass (Fig. 6) provided a more direct route to the 4100L haulageway for all ore handled on and above the 2200L, including ore from the recently discovered No. 5 orebody. A primary crushing station was built near the bottom of the new 2700L – 4100L ore-pass. The 2700L adit was no longer a principal haulageway because ore was no longer hauled from the bottom of the 2200L – 2700L ore-pass to the old 2700L – 4100L ore-pass near the 2700L portal.

No. 8 orebody was discovered in 1937 by a diamond drill program along the 4100L. An internal shaft (#8) was collared a short distance west of the new 2700L – 4100L ore-pass to access the No. 8 orebody, most of which lay below the 4100L. By 1941, the 4100L adit had been extended to the Victoria shaft (6.1 km from the portal) and ore from all the mines could now be hauled to the mill on the 4100L. The 4100L had become the only principal haulageway, and it would remain as such to service the yet to be discovered No. 10 Mine. The 4100L adit was subsequently extended beyond the Victoria shaft to approximately 8 km from the portal (Fig. 6).

By 1941 the labour shortage attributable to WW II had become serious. Not only had enlistment reduced the workforce during the war but so too had the lure of better paying jobs with companies engaged in the war effort. Few returning veterans had mining experience and few wanted to obtain it. In a single post-war year, Britannia lost 1152 employees, mostly recently hired men who were unqualified or who became dissatisfied. "Britannia was hiring just about anything that walked" (anonymous staff member). New ore was not being developed and production and profits fell. Toward the end of 1945, Britannia was operating with fewer than 400 employees and, in the opinion of one operations staffer, it was "living in a state of hand to mouth". In 1946 the situation was exacerbated by a strike by the Britannia local of the International Union of Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers (Canada) that closed Britannia for 3.5 months. The closure was partly responsible for the drop in production in 1946 to less than 400 000 mt, the lowest level since 1920.

In 1945 or 1946, the New York office of Howe Sound Co. decided to close Britannia if newly set production quotas could not be met (Ramsey 2004, p. 100). Fortunately, metal prices improved and closure was avoided.

In 1947 C. P. Browning retired and E. C. Roper was appointed manager. In 1956 G.C. Lipsey was appointed manager and E.C. Roper moved to the New York to become President of BM&S Co. and the Howe Sound Co. Late in 1957, Lipsey retired and J.S. Roper (no relation to E.C. Roper) was appointed temporary manager.

With the resumption of work after the 1946 strike, the mine was still under threat of closure, but spurred by a sharp rise in the prices of copper, zinc and lead and an improving labour situation, production more than doubled from 1946 to 1947. During the decade from 1947 to 1957, annual production at Britannia remained fairly constant, between 721 000 and 831 000 mt. Metal prices increased, supported in part by the Korean War (1950 to 1953). During this period most of the ore came from the Bluff, Fairview, No. 8 and Victoria mines. The Jane, East Bluff, Empress and No. 5 mines were active but produced only small tonnages intermittently; in 1954 No. 5 mine was depleted. Development consisted mainly of following downward extensions of known ore-bodies such as the Bluff.

Base metal and silver prices fell sharply during 1957 and both 1957 and 1958 were difficult years for the North American mining industry. At Britannia, the payroll at the end of 1957 was 523 compared to 859 the previous year, and production was falling. The Howe Sound Company lost a significant sum of money during 1957, and late in the year it announced that Britannia would close in December, ostensibly because of the low price of copper. However, direct subsidies from the provincial and federal governments enabled Britannia to continue operations on a reduced scale until March, 1958, when operations were temporarily suspended. A mere 60 600 mt of ore were produced and milled in 1958.

After a financial reorganization of the Howe Sound Company (see section titled ‘Demise of the Howe Sound Company’) D.W. Pringle was appointed general superintendent, and then manager at Britannia. Underground operations resumed in January 1959, and the mill reopened the following month. Until 1963 total employment ranged between 300 and 400, with 200 to 250 men working underground.

Production increased as metal prices improved, reaching slightly over 450 000 mt in 1962. Development work underground returned to a normal level and limited exploration was conducted in the Victoria and No. 8 mines, which suggests that the operations staff expected production to continue. However, the strategy of the reorganized Howe Sound Company was to divest itself of its mining assets. Accordingly, the instructions to A.D. McCutcheon, Britannia operations manager during 1961 and 1962, were to operate the mine as long as it was making money and then to shut it down (Waterman 1970). To this end the Britannia operation was put up for sale.

Following an invitation by McCutcheon to J.B. Knaebel, General Manager of Anaconda Canada Ltd., Knaebel visited the mine in 1962. Knaebel and Glen C. Waterman then conducted a formal evaluation of the Britannia operation. Knaebel examined the economics of the operation and Waterman studied the geology and recalculated the ore reserves. The result of their study was a recommendation that Anaconda purchase the Britannia property.

In January 1963, the Anaconda Company (Canada) Ltd., a wholly-owned subsidiary of Anaconda American Brass Limited, purchased the Britannia operations from the Howe Sound Company for $5 000 000. Britannia was incorporated as Anaconda Britannia Mines Ltd., and B.B. Greenlee was appointed resident manager. Anaconda Canada Ltd. used Britannia as an operations base for exploration activities in western Canada, although it also maintained an office in Vancouver, which became the registered office of Anaconda Canada in 1965.

From an operations perspective, Anaconda had a poor start at Britannia. In August, 1964, the Britannia local of the Mine, Mill and Smelter Worker’s Union called a strike, and in September the company removed all equipment from underground except the main hoists and transformers. The strike lasted five months and production did not resume until May, 1965.

Anaconda initially developed and mined limited reserves in the No. 8, Victoria and Bluff mines. In 1965, roads were built to the old Jane Basin to access the previously mined ‘glory holes’ (see section titled ‘Mining Methods’) and during the summer of 1967, a 20-man open-pit crew produced about 77 000 mt from the Jane pit (7.5% of the year’s production). By the end of 1971 all the ore zones above the 4100 haulageway level had been mined out, namely the Jane, Bluff, Fairview, Empress, Victoria, No. 4 and No. 5 zones.

After assuming control of Britannia, Anaconda established a well equipped geological research laboratory, and a large staff of geologists was employed to re-log existing drill core and to re-map the mine workings. The program also involved considerable diamond drilling, which resulted in the discovery in 1964 of the 040 orebody lying 760 m west of the No. 8 mine.

Unlike other orebodies, which lay close to the footwall of the shear zone, the 040 was found some 240 m into the shear zone from the footwall. It was a small orebody, but its discovery led to the development of the important No. 10 mine. A drill hole from the 5700L in No. 8 mine, the deepest level in the mine at the time, had intersected 12 m of 040 mineralization the day before the August, 1964, strike began, and G. C. Waterman, Vice President and Chief Geologist of Anaconda Britannia Mines Ltd., later observed that if the 040 intersection had not been made before the strike began it is probable that the 5700L would not have been reclaimed after the strike, and hence the 040 and No. 10 ore bodies would not have been discovered (Waterman 1970). No. 10 shaft was collared on the 4100L, 2435 m from the portal, and extended to below the 5700 level. Production began in October of 1970, using trackless mining. The No. 10 ore body contained approximately 2.7 million mt grading 1.9% copper, and accounted for about half of Anaconda’s Britannia production.

During 12 years of operation, Anaconda mined 5.7 million mt and produced 66 700 mt of copper, which was almost 13% of the total copper recovered from Britannia Mines. When Anaconda closed Britannia in 1974, No. 8 ore zone was depleted and the remaining ore reserves in No. 10 Mine, mostly below the 5700L, were about 1.4 million mt grading approximately 1.9% copper (MINFILE), which represented just under three years mill feed at the 1973 production rate. The price of copper was an historic high of 77¢/lb. The last production shift went underground in November of 1974 (Fig. 19).

During nearly 70 years of almost continuous operation, Britannia Mines produced 517 000 mt of copper, 125 290 mt of zinc and lesser, but economically important, quantities of gold, silver, lead and cadmium. The network of tunnels, shafts, raises and development drifts connecting the workings extended more than 1.8 km vertically and 7 km horizontally, and is estimated to have exceeded 200 km total length.

During the early years of operation, Britannia shipped its mill concentrates to the Crofton smelter, which was located on Vancouver Island about 95 km by water from Britannia. The smelter had been purchased by a sister company, the Britannia Smelting Company, in 1905. When the assets of all the companies associated with the Britannia operation were amalgamated in 1908, ownership of the smelter was the reason for including the term ‘Smelting’ in the Britannia Mining and Smelting Company name.

The Crofton smelter was closed in 1911, and thereafter Britannia shipped its concentrates to the larger Tacoma smelter in Washington, which was owned by ASARCO. The initial contract for shipping concentrates to Tacoma expired in 1916, and the new shipping rates were considered by Britannia to be unreasonable. Consequently, in 1916, the Quadra Steamship Company was formed as a wholly-owned subsidiary of Britannia Mining and Smelting Co. to transport concentrates to Tacoma. Two old coastal steamers, the Canadian Government survey ship Quadra (Fig. 20) and the Canadian Pacific Steamship Company’s original Princess Louise (a paddle wheeler stripped down to serve as a barge), were purchased, and these vessels carried concentrates to Tacoma for nearly six years. After the Quadra was sold in 1924 she served as a rum runner (Ramsey 2004).

By 1905, and possibly by 1904, the Jane and the Beach camps were receiving power from Pelton wheel-driven hydroelectric generators installed on Britannia Creek. In 1905, the Britannia Power Co. Ltd. was formed to own and operate a recently completed hydro power dam on Britannia Creek and to hold water right licenses on Britannia and South Valley creeks (South Valley Creek has since been renamed Furry Creek). By 1922, powerhouses had been built at the Townsite and the Beach to house hydroelectric generators powered by water from five storage dams in the Britannia Creek water-shed and one on Furry Creek. Additional power for emergency situations was available from a steam plant located at the Beach. Nevertheless, it was apparent that future operations could be hampered by periods of low precipitation. Consequently, BM&S Co. contracted for additional power from the British Columbia Electric Railway Company’s plant in North Vancouver, and a 48 km transmission line to the Beach was completed in 1923. In 1968 the original hydroelectric system was still providing 52% of the power requirements. A 1968 Anaconda review of Britannia’s history stated that "Britannia is unique in that it is one of the few remaining mine plants in the world that still maintains its own hydroelectric system".

A foundry, based on an electric furnace designed by mill superintendent A.C. Monro, was constructed at the Beach in 1928 for the purpose of producing various castings required for both the mine and the mill. Scrap metal and used rails provided the metal to produce linings and balls for the ball mills and parts for rock crushers and ore chutes (Hatch 1957). For example, in 1955 the foundry produced 1000 mt of grinding balls and 300 mt of other items.

For 49 years BM&S Co. and Anaconda recovered copper from acidic, copper-bearing waters that drained from the mine, mostly from the 2200L and 4100L portals. The mine waters originated as surface runoff from heavy rain and snowmelt that seeped into areas underlain by fractured and weakly mineralized rock adjacent to ‘glory holes’ and areas of subsidence above old stopes. The resulting oxidation of sulphides produced the metal bearing acid mine drainage (Ebbutt and Selnes 1928). In places the oxidized zone was over 60 m deep. Miners who worked in wet sections of the mine could attest to the acidity and copper content of the waters, for after 4 to 6 weeks of working in such areas woolen long-johns would become green and brittle from adsorbed copper. Eventually they would simply disintegrate (personal experience).

The copper recovery process was based on the galvanic principal, whereby copper contained in an acidic solution will replace metallic iron and tin. The first ‘precipitation plant’, as the system was called, was built underground on the 1200L in 1925 (Ebbutt and Selnes 1928). The basic design consisted of wooden launders (box-like troughs; Fig. 21) within which the flow of mine water over shredded scrap tin cans suspended on gratings was controlled by partitions and baffles. Iron and tin were taken into solution and copper was precipitated and accumulated as sludge on the bottom of the launders. The sludge was removed, dried, bagged and shipped to the Tacoma smelter. The total length of launders in the first plant was 273 m. In 1926, the first year for which smelter returns were recorded for the precipitation plant, 90.7 mt of copper were recovered and in 1927 a modified and enlarged plant produced 226.8 mt of copper, or 1.5% of Britannia’s copper production for that year. Larger and improved precipitation plants were built on surface near the 2200L portal, and in 1956 a plant was built at the Beach to process waters emanating from the 4100L (Hatch 1957). The Beach plant featured five concrete launders, each 91.4 m long. The precipitation plants normally produced about 1% of the copper produced in a year, although in the depression year of 1933 it was about 6% and in 1967 it was 4.8%. The precipitation plants required only a few men per shift and little equipment to operate them, so the cost/lb of copper recovered was considerably less than for copper recovered from ore. These mine waters were, of course, the source of the acid mine drainage problem at Britannia after the mine closed.

On March 22, 1915, at 12:03 am the Jane Camp was hit by a debris avalanche of snow, mud and rock. Fifty seven men, women and children were killed and 22 were injured (Fig. 13). Many homes and mine buildings, including the tramway loading terminus, were destroyed. The slide broke the Jane Camp phone line, so the first indication of trouble was a sudden decrease of the power load on the generators at the Tunnel Camp power-house. Because the slide had disabled the tramway, rescuers leaving the Tunnel Camp had to hike to the Jane Camp, a climb of approximately 335 m vertically. Phone calls from Britannia Beach eventually summoned help by steamer from Vancouver and by evening of the following day injured survivors began to arrive in Vancouver. The disaster caused a three-month suspension of production and resulted in the closure of the Jane Camp.

The 1918 Spanish flu pandemic took a larger toll of Britannia lives than the two World Wars combined. The record of flu deaths at Britannia is not available, but it is estimated that over 40 residents lost their lives, including the mine manager’s daughter, who was attending school in Vancouver.

Activity apparently came to a standstill for a matter of weeks. Ramsey (2004, p. 51) reported that "Men died like flies in the bunkhouses, and the dance hall up at the Tunnel Camp became a temporary hospital". The medical officer at the Beach was overwhelmed; the hospital was full, every house had somebody sick in it, and his task was made even more difficult when the Tunnel Camp nurse succumbed to the flu. In his 1918 annual report the mine manager, E. J. Donohue, succinctly states, "In conclusion I would add that our operation was seriously interfered with during the months of October and November on account of the Spanish influenza epidemic" (Donohue 1919).

In March of 1921, while Mill No. 2 was idled by the low price of copper, it burned to the ground (Fig. 16a, b). Fortunately no lives were lost. Plans for construction of a new mill began immediately. The event must have been a bitter pill for management, given the difficult economic situation for the mining industry at the time. But yet another disaster was to befall the community that year.

On Sunday, October 28, 1921, shortly after 9 pm, a log and debris obstruction on the upper reaches of Britannia Creek broke, and when the ensuing flood struck the Beach community, 37 were killed and 15 hospitalized as homes and people were swept out to sea (Fig. 16c, d). Weather was a factor, as it was with the debris avalanche of 1915. Heavy rain, which had caused flooding in other lower mainland communities, was responsible for the logjam and buildup of water.

The manager’s house at the Beach was turned into a makeshift hospital, because the community hospital was on the other side of the raging creek and therefore inaccessible. The community doctor had only bandages and disinfectant obtained from the company store to treat the injured because medical supplies were in the hospital. Moreover, there was no lighting because the power line was down. The storm had disabled the telephone line to Vancouver, so two men were sent in a rowboat to get word out. They had to row approximately 29 km before finding a functioning phone. At dawn the following day another rowboat was sent to a pulp mill on the other side of Howe Sound and a few hours later the mill’s tugboat arrived with a doctor and some medical supplies. Medical assistance arrived from Vancouver by steamer about noon the day after the flood, and late that afternoon the seriously injured were transported to hospital. Dr. Menzies, the company doctor, who had arrived at the mine only three weeks before (the assignment was his first practice after medical school) described the scene the next morning as follows: "Our village was a mass of wreckage with some wide-open spaces where houses had been washed out. Some of the buildings had been thrust aside and lay at crazy angles where they had been deposited; others had been crushed to pieces and were now merely bits of lumber mingled with the numerous logs that had been brought down by the flood" (Menzies 1959).

The Jane Camp, the original mining site (Figs. 9b, 13a), was located at an elevation of about 1000 m, 4.5 km inland from Britannia Beach. During the first few years of development the only access to the Jane Camp was by a 6.5 km horse trail from Howe Sound. A small steamer from Vancouver made two stops a week at a floating dock at the end of the horse trail. Supplies and equipment for the camp, and for constructing the tramway, were carried by pack-train (Fig. 24). After the aerial tramway that carried ore to the concentrator at Britannia Beach was completed in 1905 (Fig. 12a), supplies for the Jane Camp were carried on the tramway, but for safety’s sake only the company doctor and management personnel were allowed to ride the buckets. Other employees and families going to Vancouver had to hike the horse trail.

As mining progressed, the camp grew to include bunkhouses for single men, cabins for families, a store, recreational facilities and various mine buildings. One of the mine buildings was a ‘Candle House’. During the early years, miners at the Jane Mine worked by candlelight or by oil wick lamps (Fig. 12c). Carbide lamps began to be used in the mining industry only in the first decade of the 20^th century. In 1911, Britannia employed 145 men underground (Robertson 1912) and all of these, plus probably a third of the 180 men employed on surface, would have lived in the Jane Camp. After the disastrous debris avalanche in 1915 the Jane Camp was abandoned.

The Halfway Camp (Fig. 12d) was built in 1904 or 1905 at the bottom of the top leg of the aerial tramway to house workers who operated and maintained the angle station. The lower leg of the tramway followed a different direction than the top leg, and the angle station was where ore carried by the top leg was dumped into bins and reloaded into buckets on the lower leg. After the top leg of the tramway was destroyed, the Halfway Camp was vacated.

Britannia Beach (Fig. 22b) was the principal, although not the largest, community throughout the life of the mine and it is the only community that remained after the mine closed. Its population was less than the Townsite, but it was the site of the dock for the coastal steamers that linked Britannia to Vancouver and Squamish (Fig. 25) and the location of the concentrators, concentrate-shipping wharf (Fig. 20), mine office and manager’s house. It also had a powerhouse and some mine support shops, such as the assay office and the foundry.

Clearing and construction of the Beach Camp began in 1903 and by 1905, the year the mine began shipping concentrates, most of the above-mentioned facilities had been built. In 1905 the Beach also contained accommodation for company officers, a store, a company run hotel and a small number of family cottages. A post office opened in 1907, and in 1915 a telegraph office was established.

Minaty Bay was a small shoreline community on BM&S land several kilometres south of the Beach. It was established about 1925 and was not considered to be a separate ‘camp’. Its residents were completely dependent on the facilities provided at Britannia Beach.

The Townsite was located on Britannia Creek, in mountainous surroundings, 3.7 km east of the Beach at an elevation of 650 m (Fig. 22a). When it was established in 1914 it was designated the Tunnel Camp (Fig. 14a), in reference to its proximity to the 2200L portal. About 1918, it became known as the Townsite, and when it acquired a post office in 1954 it was officially renamed Mount Sheer. For much of Britannia’s operational life this community was where most of the underground workers and mine staff lived. For example, in 1930, the year of Britannia’s peak production, approximately 1100 men were employed overall, including 625 underground, 245 on surface at the various camps, and only 225 at the Beach. The Townsite contained mine offices and shops, a powerhouse, bunkhouses, apartments for single staff, and numerous cottages for men with families. The community facilities mirrored those at the Beach.

Before a road between the Beach and the Townsite was completed in 1952, the electric railway (known as the ‘Skip’; Figs. 18, 23b), the incline (Figs. 15a, 23a), and the 347 steps from the Beach to the bottom of the incline were the only means of travel between the two communities. The Britannia high school was located at the Town-site, so students from the Beach had to make the 45 minute trip twice a day. After the communities were linked by road, students attended school in Squamish. The Incline and the Skip were integral components of life at Britannia, and although the ride was a nuisance to some, it was an experience that was remembered.

When Mount Sheer was abandoned in 1974, Anaconda burned the buildings to avoid potential problems with trespassers.

Temporary ‘camps’, such as Barbara (Fig. 26a), Empress (Fig. 26b), Beta, Victoria and Fairwest, were established during Britannia’s early decades to facilitate the development of deposits located in rugged terrain southeast of the Townsite (Fig. 10). Most of these camps contained bunkhouses and facilities for 40 to 80 single men. Access was through mine workings or by trail.

Ramsey (2004, p. 137) relates the humorous story of a resident of the Victoria camp who cut a nice Christmas tree to take home on his holiday visit to Vancouver. The task involved carrying the tree into the mine, up the Victoria shaft, through the mine to the 2200L portal (a trip of 2.7 km), onto the Skip, down the incline and 347 steps to the Beach, onto the boat to Vancouver (all the while protecting it from damage), onto a streetcar in Vancouver, a transfer onto another streetcar and finally proudly presenting it to his wife who commented that it was not much of a tree. The tree was burned.

The Barbara, Empress and Beta camps were established in 1916 and 1917 and were closed in the early 1930s. The Victoria Camp was established in 1921 on the Furry Creek side of Britannia Mountain, to facilitate development of the Victoria deposit, and operated until 1943. It initially held 65 men but in 1924 it held 250 underground and surface employees, some of whom lived in family cabins. A sawmill that supplied mine timbers was located at the Victoria Camp. The Fairwest Camp (Fig. 6) was established in 1925 on the south side of Furry Creek to explore the promising Fair-west ore zone. A shaft was sunk but results were disappointing and the camp was closed. The Daisy Camp (Figs, 6, 10) was located on Britannia Mountain 2.3 km east of the Beach to explore the Daisy showing. An adit was driven but the project was abandoned. The Incline Camp was established in 1914 near the top of the incline to house men working on the incline and was later rebuilt for miners working on the extension of the 2700L adit.

By popular legend, Alexander A. Forbes (Fig. 27) is credited with discovering mineralization in the area that was to become Britannia Mines. Forbes was born in Scotland about 1850. At the age of 13 he joined the British navy and after 10 years of service he left to live in Connecticut. There he became a school teacher, married, and obtained medical training. In 1886 he arrived in Vancouver and became a medical officer assigned to the Howe Sound area and the east coast of the Straits of Georgia. He built a cottage in what is now Hopkins Landing and it was there that he met the fisherman Granger who led him to Britannia Mountain. About 1900 he returned to the United States, then re-entered BC in 1912 and became a medical officer for the Powell River Company, which operated a pulp mill 120 km northwest of Vancouver. After about 20 years he retired to North Vancouver and died there in 1935, at age 85. Although his vocation was medicine, his serious avocation was prospecting. He was also, obviously, an adventurer and possibly somewhat of a free spirit.

Furry was born about 1855. He became a trapper and owned a cabin on McNab Creek on the west shore of Howe Sound. In 1898, acting as agent for members of the Boskowitz family and others, he staked two groups of claims on Britannia Mountain. It is not known whether Furry discovered copper-stained outcrops where he staked the claims or whether he was given directions to the site. Remarkably, the claims he staked covered all the deposits mined by Britannia Mines. For his efforts he retained part ownership in the claims. The extent of his ownership became the subject of a court case that was carried to the Supreme Court of Canada, where the case was decided in his favour. After staking the Britannia claims, Furry fell into poor physical and mental health, and in 1905, the year that Britannia began production, he entered the Essondale facility for the mentally ill in New Westminster and died there before year end, at the age of 50. Furry Creek, on the south side of Britannia Mountain, is named after him.

Thomas Turner and the Boskowitz family played brief but crucial roles in the history of Britannia. Turner enlisted Furry to stake the Britannia and Empress claim groups. The Boskowitz family acquired a controlling interest in the claims and financed the initial work on them. It is not known whether Turner was given a map by Forbes that showed the location of mineralization on Britannia Mountain and then engaged Furry, or whether Furry, having seen mineralized outcrops, approached Turner.

Turner and the Boskowitz family were furriers, Turner in Vancouver and the Boskowitzes in Victoria. Joseph Boskowitz was a successful businessman with various interests other than mining. His son Leopold became involved with Turner and Furry with regard to claim-staking, and acted as an intermediary for other members of the family.

In 1899 Walters came to Vancouver and Britannia from Montana, where he had been involved in mining. He purchased a 70% interest in the Britannia property from the Boscowitz family and then raised exploration capital from Vancouver sources by forming the Britannia Copper Syndicate. Until 1904 he directed surface and underground development on the Jane and Clifton claims. Walters also acquired water rights on Britannia Creek for the Britannia Copper Syndicate and 75 acres of land at the mouth of Britannia Creek, where the Beach Camp would be built.

Robinson (Fig. 28a), who hailed from Ohio, came west as an engineer employed on the construction of the Santa Fé Railroad in 1878. He settled in Leadville, Colorado, and prior to becoming associated with the Britannia Copper Syndicate he had a successful career as a mining engineer with a number of mining companies in Montana and Utah. In Utah he was involved in the organization of the Tintic Company, of which G. B. Schley became president (O’Brien 1987). Robinson acquired a controlling interest in the underfinanced Britannia Copper Syndicate in 1901. He reorganized and refinanced the syndicate and was the on-site manager who brought Britannia into production. Sadly, he did not live to see the mine flourish, for he passed away in 1906, in New York City, when he was about 58 years old.

Stern was a New York financier who provided Robinson and the Britannia Copper Syndicate with a window to major financing through his association with Grant B. Schley. Stern incorporated the Howe Sound Company and Schley invested in it. Schley’s investment enabled Howe Sound to purchase a large part of a share offering by the Britannia Copper Syndicate, which in turn provided the Copper Syndicate with funds to pursue development at Britannia. Prior to his involvement with the Howe Sound Company Stern was associated with Schley in mining ventures in Utah.

G. B. Schley (Fig. 28b) was a New York banker and financier who provided the financing to bring Britannia into production. He was a founding partner in the brokerage house of Moore and Schley. Schley was active on the floor of the New York Stock Exchange for many years, and his clients included some of the wealthiest men in the country. Schley became president of a number of mining companies, including the Howe Sound Company, and he was a director of corporations such as the American Smelting and Refining Company (ASARCO), the Northern Pacific Railway Company and the Pittsburgh Coal Company. He was also president of the Tintic Company (O’Brien 1987), which owned subsidiaries in Utah with which Stern, Robinson and Moodie were associated.

Schley was born in 1845 near Syracuse, NY, to a farm family of humble circumstances. He obtained only an elementary school education and at the age of 16 he went to work as a peach picker and shipping clerk. Schley’s facility with numbers caught the attention of his employer who, in 1866, transferred him to New York. There he also caught the attention of George F. Baker, president of the First National Bank of New York. Baker invited Schley to join the bank. Grant wooed his boss’s sister, Elizabeth Baker, and the two were married in 1879. G.B. Schley, who was a noted philanthropist, died in 1917, leaving an estate of almost $6 million (O’Brien 1987).

Evander Schley was born in 1883, the youngest son of Grant B. Schley. He assumed the presidency of the Howe Sound Company in 1918, after his father’s death. His competent guidance of the Howe Sound Company and his support of the Britannia operation were important factors in the continuing success of Britannia. Under his leadership the Howe Sound Company became the holding company of a number of mining companies. Evander Schley died in 1952.

Leach was born in Massachusetts in 1878 and immigrated to Canada with his wife and three daughters in 1906. When the BM&S Co. was formed in 1908 he became Vice President and on-site manager. Late in 1911 he retired for health reasons and returned to the US, where he died in 1963. Although he served as manager for only 3 or 4 years, Leach oversaw several highly significant developments that enabled the young Britannia mine to survive some serious start-up problems. During his tenure the Britannia mill began trials with mineral flotation methods that led to the adoption of froth flotation to concentrate chalcopyrite, a move that allowed Britannia to economically process the Britannia ore. Also under Leach’s direction, a large tonnage of relatively high-grade ore more amenable to concentration than the previously mined Jane ore, was outlined at the Fairview ore zone. These events set the stage for his successor, J.W.D. Moodie.

J.W.D. Moodie (Fig. 28c) became manager in November, 1911, and held the position for nine years. He was born in Hamilton, ON, became a mining engineer and was the first Canadian manager at Britannia. Before coming to Britannia, Moodie had been manager of a project in Utah that was controlled by the Tintic Company with which Grant Schley was associated (AR-BCMM 1911). Moodie was demanding but competent, and highly thought of in the New York office of the Howe Sound Company. When he was appointed manager of Britannia he was given the authority to embark on a $5 million development program that would position Britannia to become a major world copper producer. The establishment of the 2200L as a main haulageway, the planning of the Tunnel Camp as the main mine community, the construction of the surface electric railway and incline and the beginning of the 2700L and 4100L adits, both of which would become main haulage-ways, were all projects that must have been planned in Moodie’s time with a long range perspective. The discovery of the Victoria ore zone is attributed to Moodie.

Moodie’s tenure was marred by tragedies over which he had no control. In 1914 Moodie’s wife and newborn child lost their lives in the Britannia hospital after childbirth; in 1915 the Jane Camp was damaged beyond reconstruction by a deadly debris avalanche, and in 1919 he lost his 13 year old daughter to the Spanish flu pandemic. Little wonder he left Britannia the following year, in 1920.

A native of Racine, Wisconsin, Donohue was appointed manager in the fall of 1920 and held the post for about 18 months. Donohue and Moodie had met in Utah, where both men had been employees of a company with which G.B. Schley was associated. Donohue was not a mining man by training and possibly he was appointed manager as a temporary measure. He was unfortunate in having to cope with a series of major problems during his brief role as manager, namely a freefall in the price of copper that necessitated a severe cut in the payroll, the fire that destroyed No. 2 mill, and the deadly and damaging flood of 1921. During Donohue’s management, an important link in the ore transportation system, the ore pass from the 2700L to the 4100L haulageway, was completed. Also, the Victoria camp was established and development of the Victoria orebody began.

C.P. Browning (Fig. 28d) graduated from Columbia University, NY, in 1913. At Columbia he met Evander Schley, who served as president of the Howe Sound Company throughout Browning’s term as manager (Ramsey 2004, p 76). Browning joined the engineering department at Britannia as an assistant surveyor in 1914. He advanced rapidly and was appointed manager in 1922, a position he held until 1947. Of all Britannia managers, Browning’s tenure was the longest and his management style was possibly the most appreciated.

Browning’s first task as manager was to rejuvenate the mine and the community after the previous year’s deadly and destructive flood and loss of Mill No. 2 by fire. Production was suspended for a year while efforts were concentrated on rebuilding. During his first year as manager, a new mill (No. 3; Fig. 17) was constructed and the Victoria mine began production. Ore transportation became a completely underground operation in 1928 and in 1930 Britannia Mines achieved its lifetime production high. Browning’s management skills came to the fore as he guided Britannia through the Great Depression years, during which he minimized employee layoffs in spite of having to make severe cutbacks in production. His performance was recognized by the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, which awarded Browning the 1931 Randolph Bruce medal for distinguished service to the Canadian mining industry (AR-BCMM 1931, p. A174-A175). Browning’s management style was demonstrated by his response to the unionization of Britannia workers in 1943. He made union activities a part of community life by working with the union on issues such as safety education, accommodation and community facilities (Ramsey 2004, p. 94). Of prime importance was the safety education program, started in 1946, which markedly reduced accidents. Browning guided Britannia Mines through the critical manpower shortage caused by WW II and the first strike in the history of Britannia in 1946. He retired in 1947. He had been well liked and respected for his efforts to provide the best for both BM&S Co. and the community.

‘Cece’ Roper graduated from the University of Alberta with a B.Sc. in mining engineering in 1936 and immediately went to work as a miner at Britannia. He was appointed manager of Britannia in 1947 and served in that position until the end of 1955. He moved to New York and in 1957 he became president of the Howe Sound Company and of BM&S Co. It was his unwelcome task in early December, 1957, to wire the mine manager, J.S. Roper (no relation), to prepare Britannia for closure, an order he later modified to allow continuing production on a reduced basis for as long as practicable. After Howe Sound merged with Haile Mines Inc., Roper resigned his presidencies of BM&S Co. and the Howe Sound Co. He returned to Canada, obtained a MBA degree, and in 1964 became the first principal of the British Columbia Institute of Technology.

Lipsey was associated with Britannia and the Howe Sound Company for nearly 30 years. He graduated with a mining engineering degree from UBC in 1924, promptly went to work at Britannia, and became mine superintendent in 1940. In 1945, the Howe Sound Company appointed him manager of a developing gold mine at Snow Lake, Manitoba (Manitoba Science, Technology, Energy and Mines 2002). In 1955, the Snow Lake operations were transferred to BM&S, and in 1956 Lipsey returned to Britannia as Vice President and General Manager of BM&S Co. He retired to Vancouver in 1957.

During the 1957 to 1963 period of uncertainty and change at Britannia, beginning with the rapid fall of metal prices in 1957, through the merger of the Howe Sound Company with Haile Mines Inc. in 1958, to the sale of BM&S Co. to Anaconda Canada in 1963, the on-site management of Britannia fell to four men who were appointed by the reorganized Howe Sound Company to positions of manager or general superintendent. These were J.S. Roper, acting manager in 1957, D.W. Pringle, general superintendent for part of 1958 and manager during 1960, A.G. Kirkland, general manager of mines during 1959, and A.D. McCutcheon, manager during 1961 and 1962. McCutcheon’s instructions in 1962 were to continue operations only as long as the mine was making money, then to shut it down.

Jack Knaebel and Glen Waterman headed the Anaconda team that examined the Britannia operation prior to its purchase by Anaconda Canada in 1963. Knaebel graduated from Cornell University in 1928 with a degree in mining engineering, and Waterman obtained B.A. and M.Sc. degrees in geology from Stanford University. By 1962 both men had forged distinguished careers with Anaconda. Knaebel had previously worked in BC as managing director of Amparo Mining Co. Ltd., which, in 1939, was developing a gold property in the Yanks Peak area (Cariboo region) of BC. Waterman was appointed chief geologist of Anaconda Britannia Mines Ltd.

Barney Greenlee was manager of Britannia for Anaconda from 1963 to 1974. He was born in Los Angeles, went to sea at 15, worked in the commercial fishing industry on the coasts of California and Mexico and in 1929 he began his career in mining as a labourer in Nevada. He worked in mines in Nevada, California and Alaska and intermittently attended Stanford University, from which he graduated in 1938 with a degree in mining engineering. He then gained experience in numerous mines in the US southwest, working his way up to a position as mine manager. His first position in BC was with Giant Mascot Mines at their nickel mine about 11 km north of Hope (Greenlee 1970).

During his first year at Britannia, Greenlee shepherded the mine through the 5-month strike by the International Union of Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers. The No. 10 mine was developed and mined during his tenure and in 1974 he oversaw the closing of Britannia Mines.