Abstracts
Résumé
Il semblerait qu’une opposition existe entre l’universalité et la contingence. Cette opposition nous paraît être fallacieuse. Nous développons dans cet article un argument en faveur d’une troisième piste, celle de l’hybridité, que nous basons sur la théorie postcoloniale. Nous nous intéressons aux interactions interculturelles et à leurs impacts sur les modes de management des entreprises africaines comme prisme de lecture, afin de contribuer aux réflexions théoriques et conceptuelles sur le caractère et les attributs d’une notion de management africain. Nous suggérons qu’une théorie du management en Afrique est par définition hybride et reflète le résultat des rencontres interculturelles.
Mots-clés :
- Management,
- Afrique,
- hybridité,
- échanges culturels,
- authenticité,
- théorie postcoloniale
Abstract
It would seem that an opposition exists between universality and contingency. This opposition, we argue, seems to be misleading. Drawing on postcolonial theory, in this paper we develop an argument for a third avenue, that of hybridity. We use this lense to investigate intercultural interactions and their impact on management in African companies with a view to contributing to theoretical and conceptual reflections on the character and attributes of an African concept of management. We suggest that a theory of management in Africa is by definition hybrid and reflects the outcome of intercultural encounters.
Keywords:
- Management,
- Africa,
- hybridity,
- cultural exchanges,
- authenticity,
- postcolonial theory
Resumen
Parece que existiría una oposición entre universalidad y contingencia; consideramos que esta oposición es engañosa. En este artículo desarrollamos un argumento a favor de una tercera vía, la de la hibridación, aquí basada en la teoría postcolonial. Desde esta óptica, nos interesamos por las interacciones interculturales y su impacto en los métodos de gestión de las empresas africanas, como contribución a la reflexión teórica y conceptual sobre el carácter y los atributos de la noción de gestión empresarial africana. Sugerimos que una teoría de la gestión de empresas en África es por definición híbrida, y refleja el resultado de encuentros interculturales.
Palabras clave:
- Gestión de empresas,
- África,
- hibridación,
- intercambios culturales,
- autenticidad,
- teoría poscolonial
Appendices
Bibliographie
- Adler, Nancy J. (1983). « A typology of management studies involving culture », Journal of International Business Studies, vol. 14, no 2, p. 29-47.
- Adler, Paul S.; FORBES, Linda C.; WILLMOTT, Hugh (2007). « Critical management studies », The Academy of Management Annals, vol. 1, no 1, p. 119-179.
- Ailon, Galit (2008). « Mirror, mirror on the wall: Culture’s consequences in a value test of its own design », The Academy of Management Review, vol. 33, no 4, p. 885-904.
- Alcadipani, Rafael; Khan, Farzad Rafi; Gantman, Ernesto; NKOMO, Stella M. (2012). « Southern voices in management and organization knowledge », Organization, vol. 19, no 2, p. 131-143.
- Allali, Brahim (2002). « Traditions nationales et gestion d’entreprise : portée et limites de l’approche d’iribarnienne dans l’analyse de la culture marocaine », Management International, vol. 6, no 3, p. 61-69.
- Anakwe, Uzoamaka P. (2002). « Human resource management practices in Nigeria: Challenges and insights », The International Journal of Human Resource Management, vol. 13, no 7, p. 1042-1059.
- Andreasson, Stefan (2005). « Orientalism and African Development Studies: the ‘reductive repetition’ motif in theories of African underdevelopment », Third World Quarterly, vol. 26, no 6, p. 971986.
- Andrews, Tim G.; Chompusri, Nartnalin (2001). « Lessons in `cross-vergence’: Restructuring the Thai subsidiary corporation », Journal of International Business Studies, vol. 32, no 1, p. 77-93.
- Apitsa, Suzanne Marie (2013). « L’hybridation des pratiques de GRH à l’international par le truchement de l’ethnicité en Afrique », Annales des Mines - Gérer et comprendre, vol. 113, no 3, p. 51-61.
- Azolukwam, Veronica A.; Perkins, Stephen J. (2009). « Managerial perspectives on HRM in Nigeria: Evolving hybridization ? », Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, vol. 16, no 1, p. 62-82.
- Banerjee, Subhabrata Bobby (2000). « Whose land is it anyway ? National interest, indigenous stakeholders, and colonial discourses: The case of the Jabiluka Uranium Mine », Organization Environment, vol. 13, no 1, p. 338.
- Banerjee, Subhabrata Bobby; CHIO, Vanessa C. M.; MIR, Raza éd. (2009). Organizations, markets and imperial formations. Towards an anthropology of globalization, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 256 p.
- Banerjee, Subhabrata Bobby; Prasad, Anshuman (2008). « Introduction to the special issue on “Critical reflections on management and organizations: A postcolonial perspective” », Critical Perspectives on International Business, vol. 4, no 2/3, p. 90-98.
- BanqueMondiale (2017). « Africa’s pulse: Une analyse des enjeux façonnant l’avenir économique de l’Afrique. » Document de travail 120334, Washington, DC: Groupe de la Banque Mondiale.
- Berman, Jonathan (2013). « Seven reasons why Africa’s time is now », Harvard Business Review, vol. 91, no 10, p. 34-35.
- Bhabha, Homi K. (1984). « Of mimicry and man: The ambivalence of colonial discourse », October, vol. 28, p. 125-133.
- Bhabha, Homi K. (1988). « The commitment to theory », New Formations, vol. 5, no 1, p. 5-23.
- Bhabha, Homi K. (1990). Nation and narration, London, UK: Routledge, 333 p.
- Bhabha, Homi K. (1994). The location of culture, London, UK: Routledge, 440 p.
- Bhabha, Homi K.; RUTHERFORD, Jonathan (2006). « Le tiers-espace », Multitudes, vol. 26, no 3, p. 95-107.
- Björkman, Ingmar; Barner-Rasmussen, Wilhelm; Vaara, Eero (2010). « Towards crossvergence, micro-level approaches and critical perspectives: Introduction to the special issue on new perspectives on international management research », Scandinavian Journal of Management, vol. 26, no 4, p. 417-420.
- Blanchet, Vivien (2010). « « Quand l’autre est le même… mais jamais tout à fait » : une lecture postcoloniale du commerce équitable », Revue de l’organisation responsable, vol. 5, no 1, p. 17-29.
- Boiral, Olivier; Mboungou, Grégoire (2004). « Gérer dans la tourmente : le management des entreprises formelles au Congo-Brazzaville », Management International, vol. 8, no 2, p. 33-49.
- Bollinger, Daniel; Hofstede, Geert (1987). Les différences culturelles dans le management. Comment chaque pays gère-t-il ses hommes ?, Paris : Editions Organisation, 268 p.
- Broodryk, Johann (2005). Ubuntu management philosophy: Exporting ancient African wisdom into the global world, Randburg, South Africa: Knowledge Resources, 255 p.
- Cesaire, Aimé (1939). « Cahier d’un retour au pays natal », Volontés, no 20.
- Chan, Kwok-Bun; LUK, Vivienne; WANG, George Xun (2005). « Conflict and innovation in international joint ventures: Toward a new sinified corporate culture or ‘alternative globalization’ in China », Asia Pacific Business Review, vol. 11, no 4, p. 461-482.
- Chio, Vanessa C. M. (2005). Malaysia and the development process: Globalization, knowledge transfers and postcolonial dilemmas, New York, NY: Routledge, 272 p.
- Chio, Vanessa C.M. (2008). « Transfers, training and inscriptions: The production of modern market citizens in Malaysia », Critical perspectives on international business, vol. 4, no 2/3, p. 166-183.
- Claeyé, Frederik (2014). Managing nongovernmental organizations: Culture, power, and resistance, New York, NY: Routledge, 246 p.
- Claeyé, Frederik; Jackson, Terence (2012). « The iron cage re-revisited: Institutional isomorphism in non-profit organisations in South Africa », Journal of International Development, vol. 24, no 5, p. 602-622.
- Cooke, Bill (2003). « The denial of slavery in management studies », Journal of Management Studies, vol. 40, no 8, p. 1895-1918.
- Edoho, Felix M., éd. (2001a). Management Challenges for Africa in the Twenty-First Century: Theoretical and Applied Perspectives, Westport, CT.: Praeger, 304 p.
- Edoho, Felix M. (2001b). « Management in Africa: The quest for a philosophical framework » in Felix M. Edoho (Éd), Management Challenges for Africa in the Twenty-First Century: Theoretical and Applied Perspectives, Westport, CT: Praeger, p. 73-89.
- Ernst & Young (2014). « Ernst & Young’s Africa attractiveness survey Africa 2014: Executing growth », Johannesburg, South Africa: Ernst & Young.
- Fanon, Frantz (1952). Peau noire, masques blancs, Paris : Seuil, 224 p.
- Fanon, Frantz (1961). Les damnés de la terre, Paris : Éditions Maspero, 311 p.
- Fougere, Martin; Moulettes, Agneta (2007). « The construction of the modern West and the backward rest: Studying the discourse of Hofstede’s Culture’s Consequences », Journal of Multicultural Discourses, vol. 2, no 1, p. 119.
- Fougere, Martin; Moulettes, Agneta (2009). « On ‘cultural’ knowledge in international management textbooks: A postcolonial reading » in Subhabrata Bobby Banerjee, Vanessa C. M. Chio, et Raza Mir (Éd), Organizations, markets and imperial formations: Towards an anthropology of globalization, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, p. 1742.
- Fougere, Martin; Moulettes, Agneta (2012). « Disclaimers, dichotomies and disappearances in international business textbooks: A postcolonial deconstruction », Management Learning, vol. 43, no 1, p. 524.
- Frenkel, Michal (2008). « The multinational corporation as a third space: Rethinking international management discourse on knowledge transfer through Homi Bhabha », Academy of Management Review, vol. 33, no 4, p. 924-942.
- Frenkel, Michal; Shenhav, Yehouda (2006). « From binarism back to hybridity: A postcolonial reading of management and organization studies », Organization Studies, vol. 27, no 6, p. 855-876.
- Frimousse, Soufyane; Peretti, et Jean-Marie (2005). « Apprentissage stratégique des pratiques de GRH, internationalisation des firmes et espace euro-maghrébin, Abstract », Management & Avenir,, no 5, p. 45-61.
- Gandhi, Leela (1998). Postcolonial theory: A critical introduction, Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press, 200 p.
- Haire, Mason; Ghiselli, Edwin E.; Porter, Lyman W (1966). Managerial thinking: An international study, New York, NY: Wiley, 298 p.
- Henry, Alain (1991). « Vers un modèle du management africain », Cahiers d’études africaines, vol. 31, no 124, p. 447-73.
- Henry, Alain (1993). « Les entreprises en Afrique : des progrès méconnus », Afrique 2000 : revue trimestrielle, no 14, p. 83-92.
- Henry, Alain (1997). « Des entreprises performantes en Afrique, modèle de “gouvernance” », Afrique contemporaine, no 181, p. 12-24.
- Hofstede, Geert (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. 2nd éd, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 616 p.
- Hofstede, Geert; Bond, Michael Harris (1988). « The Confucius connection: From cultural roots to economic growth », Organizational Dynamics, vol. 16, no 4, p. 521.
- House, Robert J.; Hanges, Paul J.; Javidan, Mansour; Dorfman, Peter W.; Gupta, Vipin, éd. (2004). Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 848 p.
- Huntington, Samuel P. (1996). Clash of civilization and the remaking of world order, New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 367 p.
- Hydén, Göran (1983). No shortcuts to progress: African development management in perspective, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 242 p.
- Ibarra-Colado, Eduardo (2011). « Introduction: Critical approaches to comparative studies in organizations: From current management knowledge to emerging agendas », Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne Des Sciences de l’Administration, vol. 28, no 2, p. 154-159.
- Inglehart, Ronald; Baker, Wayne E. (2000). « Modernization, cultural change, and the persistence of traditional values », American Sociological Review, vol. 65, no 1, p. 19-51.
- Inkeles, Alex (1960). « Industrial man: The relation of status to experience, perception, and value », The American Journal of Sociology, vol. 66, no 1, p. 131.
- Iribarne, Philippe d’ (1990). « Face à l’impossible décentralisation des entreprises africaines », Revue française de gestion, vol. 80, p. 28-39.
- Iribarne, Philippe d’ (2003a). « Des pratiques de gestion modernes enracinées dans les cultures du tiers-monde », Présence Africaine, no 167-168, p. 27-35.
- Iribarne, Philippe d’ (2003b). Le Tiers-monde qui réussit : Nouveaux modèles, Paris : Editions Odile Jacob, 288 p.
- Iribarne, Philippe d’ (2008). « Culture et développement, les questions de management », Afrique contemporaine, no 226 (novembre), p. 229-42.
- Jack, Gavin; Westwood, Robert (2009). International and cross-cultural management studies: A postcolonial reading, Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 367 p.
- Jackson, Terence (2002a). « Reframing human resource management in Africa: A cross-cultural perspective », The International Journal of Human Resource Management, vol. 13, no 7, p. 998-1018.
- Jackson, Terence (2002b). « The management of people across cultures: Valuing people differently », Human Resource Management, vol. 41, no 4, p. 455-475.
- Jackson, Terence (2004). Management and change in Africa. A cross-cultural perspective, London, UK: Routledge, 298 p.
- Jackson, Terence (2011). « From cultural values to cross-cultural interfaces: Hofstede goes to Africa », Journal of Organizational Change Management, vol. 24, no 4, p. 532-558.
- Jackson, Terence (2012). « Postcolonialism and organizational knowledge in the wake of China’s presence in Africa: Interrogating South-South relations », Organization, vol. 19, no 2, p. 181-204.
- Jackson, Terence (2013). « Reconstructing the indigenous in African management research: Implications for international management studies in a globalised world », Management International Review, vol. 53, no 1, p. 13-38.
- Jackson, Terence (2015). « Management studies from Africa: A cross-cultural critique », Africa Journal of Management, vol. 1, no 1, p. 78-88.
- Jackson, Terence; Amaeshi, Kenneth; Yavuz, Serap (2008). « Untangling Africa indigenous management: multiple influences on the success of SMEs in Kenya », Journal of World Business, vol. 43, no 4, p. 400-416.
- Jaeger, Alfred M.; Kanungo, Rabindra N., éd. (1990). Management in developing countries, London, UK: Routledge, 306 p.
- Kamdem, Emmanuel (1996). « Ni Taylor, ni folklore: pour un management africain interculturel et créatif », Organizações & Sociedade, vol. 3, no 6, p. 97-126.
- Kamdem, Emmanuel (2001). « Intervention organisationnelle et gestion du changement–Quelques expériences africaines », Management International, vol. 5, no 2, p. 33-49.
- Kamdem, Emmanuel (2002). Management et interculturalité en Afrique : Expérience camerounaise, Saint-Nicolas, Canada : Les presses de l’université Laval, 434 p.
- Kamoche, Ken (2000). Sociological paradigms and human resources: An African context, London, UK: Ashgate, 209 p.
- Khilji, Shaista E. (2002). « Modes of convergence and divergence: an integrative view of multinational practices in Pakistan », International Journal of Human Resource Management, vol. 13, no 2, p. 232-53.
- Kiggundu, Moses N. (1989). Managing organizations in developing countries: An operational and strategic approach, West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press, 328 p.
- Kwek, Dennis (2003). « Decolonizing and re-presenting culture’s consequences: A postcolonial critique of cross-cultural studies in management » in Anshuman Prasad (Éd), Postcolonial theory and organizational analysis: A critical engagement, New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, p. 121-46.
- Labazee, P. (1990). « La gestion de l’entreprise Africaine : Réflexions sur les fonctions sociales d’un mythe techniciste », Tiers-monde, vol. 31, no 124, p. 833-852.
- Leonard, David K. (1987). « The political realities of African management », World Development, vol. 15, no 7, p. 899910.
- Levitt, T. (1983). « The globalization of markets », Harvard Business Review, vol. 61, no 3, p. 92-102.
- Lutz, David W. (2009). « African Ubuntu philosophy and global management », Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 84, no S3, p. 313-328.
- Mangaliso, Mzamo P. (2001). « Building competitive advantage from ubuntu: Management lessons from South Africa », Academy of Management Executive, vol. 15, no 3, p. 23-33.
- Mbigi, Lovemore (1997). Ubuntu: The African dream in management, Randburg, South Africa: Knowledge Resources, 157 p.
- Mbigi, Lovemore; Maree, Jenny (1995). Ubuntu. The spirit of African transformation management, Randburg, South Africa: Knowledge Resources, 125 p.
- Minkov, Michael (2007). What makes us different and similar: A new interpretation of the World Values Survey and other cross-cultural data, Sofia, Bulgaria: Klasika i Stil Publishing House, 247 p.
- Moulettes, Agneta (2007). « The absence of women’s voices in Hofstede’s Cultural Consequences: A postcolonial reading », Women In Management Review, vol. 22, no 6, p. 443-455.
- NederveenPieterse, Jan (2009). Globalization and culture: Global mélange. 2 éd, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
- Negandhi, Anant R.; PRASAD, S. Benjamin (1975). The frightening angels: A study of US multinationals in developing countries, Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, OH, 249 p.
- Negandhi, Anant R.; Reimann, Bernard C. (1972). « A contingency theory of organization re-examined in the context of a developing country », Academy of Management Journal, vol. 15, no 2, p. 137-146.
- Newenham-Kahindi, Aloysius (2009). « The transfer of Ubuntu and Indaba business models abroad: A case of South African multinational banks and telecommunication services in Tanzania », International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, vol. 9, no 1, p. 87-108.
- Nkomo, Stella M. (2006). « Images of African leadership and management in organisation studies: Tensions, contradictions and re-visions ». Conférence inaugurale, Pretoria, South Africa, mars 7.
- Nkomo, Stella M. (2011). « A postcolonial and anti-colonial reading of ‘African’ leadership and management in organization studies: Tensions, contradictions and possibilities », Organization, vol. 18, no 3, p. 365-386.
- Nyathi, Nceku (2008). « The organisational imagination in African anti-colonial thought », Doctoral dissertation, Leicester, UK: Universisty of Leicester.
- Nzelibe, C. O. (1986). « The evolution of African management thought », International Studies of Management & Organization, vol. 16, no 2, p. 616.
- Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A people’s history, London, UK: Zed Books, 324 p.
- Onyemelukwe, C.C. (1973). Men and management in contemporary Africa, London, UK: Longman, 204 p.
- Osland, Joyce S.; Bird, Allan (2000). « Beyond sophisticated stereotyping: Cultural sensemaking in context », Academy of Management Executive, vol. 14, no 1, p. 65-79.
- Ouattara, I. (1995). « Management et culture : les fondements de la nécessité d’une adaptation : le cas de l’Afrique », Humanisme et entreprise, vol. 23, no 213, p. 45-66.
- Özkazanç-Pan, B. (2008). « International management research meets the rest of the world », Academy of Management Review, vol. 33, no 4, p. 964-974.
- Prasad, Anshuman, éd. (2003a). Postcolonial theory and organizational analysis: A critical engagement, New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 320 p.
- Prasad, Anshuman (2003b). « The gaze of the other: Postcolonial theory and organizational analysis » in Anshuman Prasad (Éd), Postcolonial theory and organizational analysis: A critical engagement, New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, p. 343.
- Prasad, Anshuman (2016). « Toward decolonizing modern Western structures of knowledge: A postcolonial interrogation of (Critical) Management Studies » in Anshuman Prasad, Pushkala Prasad, Albert J. Mills, et Jean Helms Mills (Éd), The Routledge companion to critical management studies, London, UK: Routledge, p. 161-99.
- Prasad, S. Benjamin; Pisani, Michael J.; Prasad, Rose M. (2008). « New criticisms of international management: An analytical review », International Business Review, vol. 17, no 6, p. 617-629.
- Priem, Richard L.; Love, Leonard G.; Shaffer, Margaret (2000). « Industrialization and values evolution: The case of Hong Kong and Guangzhou, China », Asia Pacific Journal of Management, vol. 17, no 3, p. 473-492.
- Primecz, Henriett; Romani, Laurence; Sackmann, Sonja, éd. (2011). Cross-cultural management in practice: Culture and negotiated meanings, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 192 p.
- Ralston, David A., Gustafson, David J.; Cheung, Fanny M.; Terpstra, et Robert H. (1993). « Differences in managerial values: A study of U.S., Hong Kong and PRC managers », Journal of International Business Studies, vol. 24, no 2, p. 249-275.
- Roberts, K. H (1970). « On looking at an elephant: An evaluation of cross-cultural research related to organizations. », Psychological Bulletin, vol. 74, no 5, p. 327-350.
- Roxburgh, Charles; Dörr, Norbert; Leke, Acha; Tazi-Riffi, Amine; VanWamelen, Arend; Lund, Susan; Chironga, Mutsa; et al. (2010). « « L’heure des Lions » : L’Afrique à l’aube d’une croissance pérenne », McKinsey Global Institute.
- Safavi, Farrokh (1981). « A model of management education in Africa », Academy of Management Review, vol. 6, no 2, p. 319-331.
- Said, Edward W. (2003). Orientalism, London, UK: Penguin Books, 396 p.
- Senaji, Thomas Anyanje; Metwally, Elham; Sejjaaka, Samuel; BuenarPuplampu, Bill; Michaud, James; Adedoyin-Rasaq, Hassan (2014). « LEAD - Leadership effectiveness, motivation, and culture in Africa: Lessons from Egypt, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, and Uganda: LEAD AFRICA », Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, vol. 31, no 4, p. 228-244.
- Senghor, Léopold Sédar (1964). Liberté, tome 1. Négritude et humanisme, Paris : Seuil, 438 p.
- Service De Recherche Du Parlement Europeen (2016). « La croissance économique de l’Afrique : Décollage ou ralentissement ? » PE 573.891, Union européenne.
- Shimoni, Baruch; Bergmann, Harriet (2006). « Managing in a changing world: From multiculturalism to hybridization - The production of hybrid management cultures in Israel, Thailand, and Mexico. », The Academy of Management Perspectives, vol. 20, no 3, p. 76-89.
- Sibeud, Emmanuelle (2004). « Post-colonial et colonial studies : enjeux et débats », Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, vol. no51-4bis, no 5, p. 87-95.
- Smouts, Marie-Claude (2007). « Introduction / Le postcolonial pour quoi faire ? » in Marie-Claude Smouts (Éd), La situation postcoloniale. Les postcolonial studies dans le débat français, Paris, France : Presses de Sciences Po, p. 25-66.
- Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty (1988). « Can the subaltern speak ? » in Cary Nelson et Lawrence Grossberg (Éd), Marxism and the interpretation of culture, Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, p. 271-313.
- Srinivas, Nidhi (2012). « Epistemic and performative quests for authentic management in India », Organization, vol. 19, no 2, p. 145-158.
- Tayeb, Monir H. (1987). « Contingency theory and culture: A study of matched English and the Indian manufacturing firms », Organization Studies, vol. 8, no 3, p. 241-261.
- Tidjani, Bassirou (2000). « Le profil du responsable du personnel au Sénégal : le discours et la réalité », Africa Development / Afrique et Développement, vol. 25, no 1/2, p. 191-212.
- West, Andrew (2014). « Ubuntu and business ethics: Problems, perspectives and prospects », Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 121, no 1, p. 47-61.
- Westwood, Robert (2004). « Towards a postcolonial research paradigm in international business and comparative management » in Rebecca Marschan-Piekkari et Catherine Welch (Éd), Handbook of qualitative research methods for international business, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, p. 56-83.
- Westwood, Robert; Jack, Gavin (2007). « Manifesto for a post-colonial international business and management studies: A provocation », Critical Perspectives on International Business, vol. 3, no 3, p. 246-265.
- World Economic Forum (2013). « The Africa competitiveness report 2013 », Geneva: World Economic Forum.
- Young, Robert (2001). Postcolonialism: An historical introduction, Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 510 p.
- Zoogah, David B. (2016). « Tribal diversity, human resources management practices, and firm performance », Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, vol. 33, no 3, p. 182-196.