Abstracts
Résumé
Objectifs Synthétiser les connaissances cliniques et épidémiologiques disponibles concernant les soins de santé mentale des populations migrantes, des minorités ethniques et des populations autochtones, dans le contexte de psychose débutante.
Méthodes Revue de littérature narrative portant sur la psychose débutante dans ces populations et les enjeux liés à la prestation de services d’intervention précoce.
Résultats Le statut de migrant est depuis longtemps considéré comme un facteur de risque important de psychose dans de nombreux contextes géographiques. Ce risque accru chez les migrants semble persister au-delà de la première génération et s’est avéré plus élevé dans toutes les populations migrantes, mais surtout pour les minorités ethniques noires et les individus migrant de pays en développement économique vers des pays développés. Des données récentes suggèrent que ce risque plus élevé est dû, du moins en partie, à l’exposition cumulative des migrants et des minorités à des adversités sociales, telles que la discrimination raciale, la marginalisation et le désavantage socioéconomique. Le racisme systémique affectant ces populations peut être source de biais diagnostique, accentuer les disparités de traitement et contribuer à la causalité de la psychose. Certains groupes de migrants et de minorités ethniques ont des délais d’accès aux soins plus longs, sont plus souvent hospitalisés involontairement, se désengagent prématurément et sont moins satisfaits du traitement. Tenir compte du contexte socioculturel est essentiel à la prestation de soins de qualité, en particulier dans une société diversifiée. En outre, la reconnaissance des relations de pouvoir qui découlent du contexte sociétal et qui façonnent les institutions et les modèles de soins est une étape clé vers la compétence et la sécurité structurelles dans les soins de santé mentale. Plusieurs stratégies ont été proposées pour rendre les services et systèmes de soins de santé mentale plus compétents sur le plan culturel et structurel : notamment le recours à des interprètes et à des médiateurs culturels, des évaluations adaptées et des services d’interventions culturelles spécialisées. Cependant, ces stratégies n’ont pas encore été adoptées à grande échelle dans le programme d’intervention précoce pour la psychose.
Conclusion Les services d’intervention précoce pour la psychose devraient intégrer des interventions inclusives, structurellement compétentes et éclairées par le contexte, afin de promouvoir l’engagement et des soins centrés sur la personne. Des efforts doivent être faits pour appliquer les connaissances de la psychiatrie sociale et culturelle et adapter ses outils au domaine de l’intervention précoce dans la psychose. Les considérations socioculturelles, jusqu’à présent appliquées de manière inconsistante dans la recherche sur la psychose et la conception des services au Québec, sont particulièrement pertinentes pour la province étant donné son contexte linguistique distinct, sa diversité culturelle croissante et son effort continu pour systématiser la prestation des services d’intervention précoce à large échelle.
Mots-clés :
- intervention précoce,
- premier épisode psychotique,
- immigrants,
- minorités ethniques,
- autochtones,
- psychiatrie transculturelle,
- compétence culturelle,
- sécurité culturelle,
- culture,
- psychose
Abstract
Objectives To synthesize the available epidemiological and clinical evidence relevant to the mental health care of migrant, ethnic minority and Indigenous populations in the context of early psychosis.
Methods This study provides a narrative review of the literature on psychosis in these populations, including issues related to the provision of early intervention services for psychosis.
Results Migrant status has long been reported as a significant risk factor for psychosis in many geographic contexts. This increased risk among migrants seems to persist beyond the first generation and has been found to be higher in all migrant populations, but especially for black ethnic minorities and individuals migrating from economically developing countries to developed ones. Recent evidence suggests that this higher risk is at least in part due to migrants’ and minorities’ cumulative exposure to social adversities, such as racial discrimination, marginalization and socio-economic disadvantage. Systemic racism affects migrant and minority populations by creating bias in diagnostic practices and aggravating treatment disparities in addition to contributing to causation of psychosis. Furthermore, migrant and ethnic minority groups are known to seek mental healthcare after longer delays, to be more frequently forcibly hospitalized, to disengage from treatment prematurely and to be less satisfied with their treatment. The consideration of social and cultural context and factors is essential to the provision of good healthcare, especially in a culturally diverse society. Furthermore, acknowledging power relationships that stem from the societal context and shape institutions and models of care is a key step towards structural competence and safety in mental healthcare. Several strategies have been proposed to make mental healthcare services and systems more culturally and structurally competent. These include the use of interpreters and cultural brokers, tailored assessments and specialised cultural interventions. However, these strategies have yet to be adopted broadly in early intervention for psychosis.
Conclusion Given its emphasis on meaningful engagement and person-centered care, early intervention should integrate inclusive, structurally competent and context-informed interventions as a priority. Efforts must be made to apply knowledge from and adapt the tools of social and cultural psychiatry to the field of early intervention in psychosis. Sociocultural considerations, hitherto inconsistently applied in psychosis research and service design in Quebec, are especially relevant to the province given its distinct linguistic context, its increasing cultural diversity, and its ongoing effort to systematize and expand the delivery of early intervention services.
Keywords:
- early intervention,
- first episode psychosis,
- migrants,
- ethnic minorities,
- Indigenous populations,
- social and cultural psychiatry,
- immigrants,
- cultural competence,
- cultural safety,
- culture,
- psychosis
Appendices
Bibliographie
- Adelson, N. (2005). The embodiment of inequity : Health disparities in Aboriginal Canada. Canadian journal of public health, 96(2), S45-S61. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03403702
- Adeponle, A. B., Thombs, B. D., Groleau, D., Jarvis, E. et Kirmayer, L. J. (2012). Using the cultural formulation to resolve uncertainty in diagnoses of psychosis among ethnoculturally diverse patients. Psychiatric Services, 63(2), 147-153. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201100280
- Aggarwal, N. K., Jarvis, G. E., Gomez-Carrillo, A., Kirmayer, L. J. et Lewis-Fernandez, R. (2020). The Cultural Formulation Interview since DSM-5 : Prospects for training, research and clinical practice. Transcultural Psychiatry, 57(4), 496-514. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1363461520940481
- Alegria, M., Atkins, M., Farmer, E., Slaton, E. et Stelk, W. (2010). One size does not fit all : taking diversity, culture and context seriously. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 37(1-2), 48-60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-010-0283-2
- Allen, J., Balfour, R., Bell, R. et Marmot, M. (2014). Social determinants of mental health. International review of psychiatry, 26(4), 392-407. https://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2014.928270
- Anderson, K. K., Fuhrer, R., Abrahamowicz, M. et Malla, A. K. (2012). The incidence of first-episode schizophrenia-spectrum psychosis in adolescents and young adults in Montreal : an estimate from an administrative claims database. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 57(10), 626-633. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674371205701007
- Anderson, K. K., Flora, N., Ferrari, M., Tuck, A., Archie, S., Kidd, S., Taryn, T., Kirmayer, L.J. et McKenzie, K. (2015). Pathways to first-episode care for psychosis in African-, Caribbean-, and European-origin groups in Ontario. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 60(5), 223-231.https://doi.org/10.1177/070674371506000504
- Anderson, I., Robson, B., Connolly, M., Al-Yaman, F., Bjertness, E., King, A., Tynan M., Madden R., Bang A., Coimbra Jr, C.E., Pesantes, M.A., Amigo, H., Andronov, S., Armien, B., Obando D.A., Axelsson P., Bhatti Z. S., Bhutta, Z.A., Bjerregaard, P… Yap, L. (2016). Indigenous and tribal peoples’ health (The Lancet—Lowitja Institute Global Collaboration) : a population study. The Lancet, 388(10040), 131-157. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00345-7
- American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
- Bäärnhielm, S., Åberg Wistedt, A. et Rosso, M. S. (2015). Revising psychiatric diagnostic categorisation of immigrant patients after using the Cultural Formulation in DSM-IV. Transcultural psychiatry, 52(3), 287-310.
- Balaratnasingam, S., Anderson, L., Janca, A. et Lee, J. (2015). Towards culturally appropriate assessment of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander social and emotional well-being. Australasian Psychiatry, 23(6), 626-629. https://doi.org/10.1177/1039856215608283
- Baker, S., Jackson, M., Jongsma, H. et Saville, C. W. N. (2020, July 10). A comprehensive systematic review and multilevel meta-analysis of the ethnic density effect in psychosis. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/jcxzw
- Banks, M. (1996). Ethnicity : Anthropological constructions. Routledge.
- Bhui, K.S., J.A. Owiti, A. Palinski, M. Ascoli, B. De Jongh, J. Archer, P. Staples, N. Ahmed, and A. Ajaz. 2015. A Cultural Consultation Service in East London : Experiences and Outcomes from Implementation of an Innovative Service. International Review of Psychiatry, 27(1), 11-22.
- Bibeau, G. (1998). Tropismes québécois. Je me souviens dans l’oubli. Anthropologie et Sociétés, 19(3), 151-198.
- Boudarbat, B. et Connolly, M. (2013). Évolution de l’accès à l’emploi et des conditions de travail des immigrants au Québec, en Ontario et en Colombie-Britannique entre 2006 et 2012 (No. 2013s-28). CIRANO.
- Burgess, D., Fu, S. et van Ryan, M. (2004). Why do providers contribute to disparities and what can be done about it ? Journal of General Internal Medicine, 19, 1154-1159. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1497.2004.30227.x
- Brascoupé, S. et Waters, C. (2009). Cultural safety exploring the applicability of the concept of cultural safety to aboriginal health and community wellness. International Journal of Indigenous Health, 5(2), 6-41. https://doi.org/10.3138/ijih.v5i2.28981
- Bouchard, G. et Taylor, C. (2008). Building the future, a time for reconciliation : Report. Commission de consultation sur les pratiques d’accommodement reliées aux différences culturelles. Québec. Gouvernement du Québec. 310 p. and 286 p.
- Caballero, L. (2008). Formulación cultural de casos psiquiátricos DSM-IV-TR [DSM-IV-TR cultural formulation of psychiatric cases]. In L. C. Martínez & R. Lewis-Fernández (Eds.), Formulación y abordaje cultural de casos psiquiátricos [Formulation and management of psychiatric cases] (p. 11-34). Madrid, Spain : Luzán.
- Cabral, R. R. et Smith, T. B. (2011). Racial/ethnic matching of clients and therapists in mental health services : a meta-analytic review of preferences, perceptions, and outcomes. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(4), 537. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025266
- Chaze, F., Thomson, M. S., George, U. et Guruge, S. (2015). Role of cultural beliefs, religion, and spirituality in mental health and/or service utilization among immigrants in Canada : A scoping review. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health, 34(3), 87-101. https://doi.org/10.7870/cjcmh-2015-015
- Claxton, M., Onwumere, J. et Fornells-Ambrojo, M. (2017). Do family interventions improve outcomes in early psychosis ? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 371. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00371
- Corneau, S. et Stergiopoulos, V. (2012). More than being against it : Anti-racism and anti-oppression in mental health services. Transcultural Psychiatry, 49(2), 261-282. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461512441594
- Degnan, A., Baker, S., Edge, D., Nottidge, W., Noke, M., Husain, N., Rathod, S. et Drake, R. (2017). The nature and efficacy of culturally-adapted psychosocial interventions in schizophrenia : a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291717002264
- Demarchi, C., Baune, B. T. et Clough, A. R. (2012). Detecting psychotic symptoms in Indigenous populations : A review of available assessment tools. Schizophrenia research, 139(1-3), 136-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2012.05.017
- Eagleton, T. (2000). The idea of culture. Oxford, England : Blackwell.
- Edge, D., Degnan, A., Cotterill, S., Berry, K., Drake, R., Baker, J., et al. (2016). Culturally-adapted Family Intervention (CaFI) for African-Caribbeans diagnosed with schizophrenia and their families : A feasibility study protocol of implementation and acceptability. Pilot and Feasibility Studies, 2, 39.
- Edwards, L. M., Burkard, A. W., Adams, H. A. et Newcomb, S. A. (2017). A mixed-method study of psychologists’ use of multicultural assessment. Professional Psychology : Research and Practice, 48(2), 131.
- Ehmann T., Gilbert M., Hanson L. (2004). Early Psychosis Intervention : A Framework for Strategic Planning. Canadian Mental Health Association.
- Fearon, P. et Morgan, C. (2006). Environmental factors in schizophrenia : the role of migrant studies. Schizophrenia bulletin, 32(3), 405-408. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbj076
- Fernando, S. (2010). DSM-5 and the “Psychosis Risk Syndrome”. Psychosis, 2(3), 196-198.
- Fernando, S. (2012). Race and culture issues in mental health and some thoughts on ethnic identity. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 25(2), 113-123.
- Fredrickson, G. M. (2002). Racism : A short history. Princeton University Press.
- Gara, M. A., Minsky, S., Silverstein, S. M., Miskimen, T. et Strakowski, S. (2019). A naturalistic study of racial disparities in diagnoses at an outpatient behavioral health clinic. Psychiatric Services, 70(2), 130-134. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201800223
- Gendron, M., Roberson, D., van der Vyver, J. M. et Barrett, L. F. (2014). Perceptions of emotion from facial expressions are not culturally universal : evidence from a remote culture. Emotion, 14(2), 251. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036052
- Golay, P., Baumann, P. S., Jaton, L., Restellini, R., Solida, A., Mebdouhi, N. et Conus, P. (2019). Migration in patients with early psychosis : A 3-year prospective follow-up study. Psychiatry research, 275, 108-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.03.021
- Gone, J. P. et Kirmayer, L. J. (2020). Advancing Indigenous mental health research : Ethical, conceptual and methodological challenges. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1363461520923151
- Gravlee, C. C. (2009). How race becomes biology : Embodiment of social inequality. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 139(1), 47-57. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20983
- Griner, D. et Smith, T. B. (2006). Culturally adapted mental health intervention : A meta-analytic review. Psychotherapy : Theory, research, practice, training, 43(4), 531. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-3204.43.4.531
- Groen, S. P., Richters, A., Laban, C. J. et Devillé, W. L. (2017). Implementation of the Cultural Formulation through a newly developed Brief Cultural Interview : Pilot data from the Netherlands. Transcultural Psychiatry, 54(1), 3-22.
- Gynther, B., Charlson, F., Obrecht, K., Waller, M., Santomauro, D., Whiteford, H. et Hunter, E. (2019). The epidemiology of psychosis in Indigenous populations in Cape York and the Torres Strait. EClinicalMedicine, 10, 68-77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2019.04.009
- Hansen, H., Braslow, J. et Rohrbaugh, R. M. (2018). From cultural to structural competency—training psychiatry residents to act on social determinants of health and institutional racism. JAMA psychiatry, 75(2), 117-118. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.3894
- Harlow, A. F. et Clough, A. (2014). A systematic review of evaluated suicide prevention programs targeting indigenous youth. Crisis : The Journal of Crisis Intervention and Suicide Prevention, 35(5), 310. https://doi.org/10.1027/0227-5910/a000265
- Hartmann, W. E., Wendt, D. C., Burrage, R. L., Pomerville, A. et Gone, J. P. (2019). American Indian historical trauma : Anticolonial prescriptions for healing, resilience, and survivance. American Psychologist, 74(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000326
- Heslin, M., Lomas, B., Lappin, J. M., Donoghue, K., Reininghaus, U., Onyejiaka, A., Croudace T., Jones P. B., Murray R. M., Fearon P., Dazzan P., Morgan C. et Doody, G. A. (2015). Diagnostic change 10 years after a first episode of psychosis. Psychological medicine, 45(13), 2757-2769. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291715000720
- Hunter, E., Gynther, B., Anderson, C., Onnis, L. A., Groves, A. et Nelson, J. (2011). Psychosis and its correlates in a remote indigenous population. Australasian Psychiatry, 19(5), 434-438. https://doi.org/10.3109/10398562.2011.583068
- Indigenous Physicians Association of Canada et The Royal College of Physicians & Surgeons of Canada. (2009). Cultural safety in practice : A curriculum for family medicine residents and physicians. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada : IPAC-RCPSC Family Medicine Curriculum Development Working Group. https://www.ipac-amac.ca/downloads/core-curriculum.pdf
- Iyer, S. N., Malla, A., Taksal, A., Maraj, A., Mohan, G., Ramachandran, P., Margolese, H.C., Schmitz, H., Joober, R. et Rangaswamy, T. (2020). Context and contact : a comparison of patient and family engagement with early intervention services for psychosis in India and Canada. Psychological Medicine, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291720003359
- Jarvis, G.E., Kirmayer, L. J., Jarvis, G. K. et Whitley, R. (2005). The role of Afro-Canadian status in police or ambulance referral to emergency psychiatric services. Psychiatric Services, 56(6), 705-710. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.56.6.705
- Jarvis, G. E. (2008). Changing psychiatric perception of African Americans with psychosis. European Journal of American Culture, 27(3), 227-252. https://doi.org/10.1386/ejac.27.3.227_1
- Jarvis, G. E., Iyer, S. N., Andermann, L. et Fung, K. P. (2020a). Culture and psychosis in clinical practice. In A Clinical Introduction to Psychosis (p. 85-112). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815012-2.00004-3
- Jarvis, G. E., Kirmayer, L. J., Gomez-Carrillo, A., Aggarwal, N. K. et Lewis-Fernandez, R. (2020b). Update on the Cultural Formulation Interview. Focus, 18(1), 40-46.
- Jarvis GE, Larchanche S, Bennegadi R, Ascoli M, Bhui KS, Kirmayer LJ. (2020c). Cultural Consultation in Context : A Comparison of the Framing of Identity During Intake at Services in Montreal, London, and Paris. Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry, 44(3) :433-455.
- Jones, N., Kamens, S., Oluwoye, O., Mascayano, F., Perry, C., Manseau, M. et Compton, M. T. (2021). Structural Disadvantage and Culture, Race, and Ethnicity in Early Psychosis Services : International Provider Survey. Psychiatric Services, appi-ps. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.202000211
- Jongsma, H. E., Gayer-Anderson, C., Tarricone, I., Velthorst, E., Van Der Ven, E., Quattrone, D., di Forti M., Menezes P.R., Del-Ben C.M., Arango C., Lasalvia A., Berardi D., La Cascia C., Bobes J., Bernardo M., Sanjuán J., Santos J.L., Arrojo M., de Haan L., … Kirkbride, J. B. (2020). Social disadvantage, linguistic distance, ethnic minority status and first-episode psychosis : results from the EU-GEI case—control study. Psychological medicine, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329172000029X
- Judd, F., Fraser, C., Grigg, M., Scopelliti, J., Hodgins, G., Donoghue, A. et Humphreys, J. (2002). Rural psychiatry. Disease Management & Health Outcomes, 10(12), 771-781. https://doi.org/10.2165/00115677-200210120-00004
- King, M., Smith, A. et Gracey, M. (2009). Indigenous health part 2 : the underlying causes of the health gap. The Lancet, 374(9683), 76-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60827-8
- Kirmayer, L. J., Groleau, D., Guzder, J., Blake, C. et Jarvis, E. (2003). Cultural consultation : A model of mental health service for multicultural societies. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 48(3), 145-153.
- Kirmayer, L. J. (2005). Culture, context and experience in psychiatric diagnosis. Psychopathology, 38(4), 192-196. https://doi.org/10.1159/000086090
- Kirmayer, L. J. (2008). Empathy and alterity in cultural psychiatry. Ethos, 36(4), 457-474. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-1352.2008.00027.x
- Kirmayer, L. J., Fletcher, C. et Watt, R. (2009). Locating the ecocentric self : Inuit concepts of mental health and illness. Healing traditions : the mental health of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. UBC Press, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, 289-314. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Laurence-Kirmayer/publication/285757131_Locating_the_ecocentric_self_Inuit_concepts_of_mental_health_and_illness/links/56645d5f08ae418a786d4dc0/Locating-the-ecocentric-self-Inuit-concepts-of-mental-health-and-illness.pdf
- Kirmayer, L. J. (2012). Rethinking cultural competence. Transcultural Psychiatry, 49(2), 149e164. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1363461512444673
- Kirmayer, L. J., Guzder, J. et Rousseau, C. (Eds.). (2013). Cultural consultation : Encountering the other in mental health care. Springer Science & Business Media.
- Kirmayer, L. J., Kronick, R. et Rousseau, C. (2018). Advocacy as key to structural competency in psychiatry. JAMA psychiatry, 75(2), 119-120. https://
- Kleinman, A. (1987). Anthropology and psychiatry : The role of culture in cross-cultural research on illness. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 151(4), 447-454. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.151.4.447
- Kleinman, A. (1988a). Rethinking psychiatry : From cultural category to personal experience. The Free Press.
- Kleinman A. (1988b). The illness narratives. Suffering, healing, and the human condition. Basic Books.
- Kleinman, A., Das, V. et Lock, M. (Eds.). (1997). Social suffering. University of California Press.
- Koptie, S. (2009). Irihapeti Ramsden : The public narrative on cultural safety. First Peoples Child & Family Review, 4(2), 30-43. https://doi.org/10.7202/1069328ar
- Kymlicka, W. (1995). Multicultural citizenship : A liberal theory of minority rights. Clarendon Press.
- Larchanché S. (2015a). Clinical Medical Anthropology and Its Contribution to Integrating Cultural Diversity in Psychotherapy : the Experience of the Minkowska Center. Presented at the SFU Summer School, July 20, 2015.
- Landry, R. (2014). Life in an official minority language in Canada. Moncton, New Brunswick : Canadian Institute for Research on Liguistic Minorities. Retrieved from https://www.icrml.ca/en/contact-us/download/133/8707/47
- Lebihan, L., Takongmo, C. O. M. et McKellips, F. (2018). Health disparities for immigrants : Theory and evidence from Canada. Review of Economics, 69(3), 183-206. https://doi.org/10.1515/roe-2017-0029
- Lee, C., Marandola, G., Malla, A. et Iyer, S. (2016). Challenges in and recommendations for working with international students with first-episode psychosis : A descriptive case series. International Journal of Migration, Health and Social Care. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMHSC-07-2015-0025
- Lock, M. et Gordon, D. (Eds.). (2012). Biomedicine examined (Vol. 13). Springer Science & Business Media.
- MacDonald, K., Ferrari, M., Fainman-Adelman, N. et Iyer, S. N. (2020). Experiences of pathways to mental health services for young people and their carers : a qualitative meta-synthesis review. Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology, 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-020-01976-9
- Maguire, J., Sizer, H., Mifsud, N. et O’Donoghue, B. (2020). Outcomes for migrants with a first episode of psychosis : A systematic review. Schizophrenia research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2020.05.048
- Maraj, A., Anderson, K. K., Flora, N., Ferrari, M., Archie, S., McKenzie, K. J. et ACE Project Team. (2017). Symptom profiles and explanatory models of first-episode psychosis in African-, Caribbean-and European-origin groups in Ontario. Early intervention in psychiatry, 11(2), 165-170.
- Maraj, A., Veru, F., Morrison, L., Joober, R., Malla, A., Iyer, S. et Shah, J. (2018a). Disengagement in immigrant groups receiving services for a first episode of psychosis. Schizophrenia research, 193, 399-405. https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.12272
- Maraj, A., Iyer, S. N. et Shah, J. L. (2018b). Enhancing the engagement of immigrant and ethnocultural minority clients in Canadian early intervention services for psychosis. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 63(11), 740-747. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0706743718773752
- McCarthy, M. (2001). US mental-health system fails to serve minorities, says US Surgeon General. The Lancet, 358(9283), 733. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(01)05940-2
- McCormick, R. (2008). Aboriginal approaches to counselling. In L. J. Kirmayer & G. Valaskakis (Eds.), Healing traditions : The mental health of Aboriginal peoples in Canada (pp. 337-355). University of British Columbia Press
- McRoberts, K. (1988). Quebec : Social change and political crisis. McClelland and Stewart Limited.
- Mental Health Commission of Canada. (2012). Changing directions, changing lives : The mental health strategy for Canada. https://www.mentalhealthcommission.ca/sites/default/files/MHStrategy_Strategy_ENG.pdf
- Metzl, J. M. (2009). The protest psychosis : How schizophrenia became a black disease. Beacon Press.
- McCallum, M. J. (2005). This last frontier : Isolation and aboriginal health. Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, 22(1), 103-120. https://doi.org/10.3138/cbmh.22.1.103
- Metzl, J. M. et Hansen, H. (2014). Structural competency : theorizing a new medical engagement with stigma and inequality. Social science & medicine, 103, 126-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.06.032
- Ministère de la santé et des services sociaux. (2019). Cadre de référence : Programmes d’interventions pour premiers épisodes psychotiques (Pipep) https://publications.msss.gouv.qc.ca/msss/document-001978/
- Miklavcic, A. et LeBlanc,M. N. (2014). Culture brokers, clinically applied ethnography, and cultural mediation. In L. J. Kirmayer, J. Guzder et C. Rousseau (Eds.), Cultural consultation : Encountering the other in mental health care (p. 115-137). New York : Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7615-3_6
- Morgan, C., Kirkbride, J., Leff, J., Craig, T., Hutchinson, G., McKenzie, K., Hutchinson, G., McKenzie K., Morgan, K., Dazzan, P., Doody, G.A., Jones, P., Murray, R. et Fearon, P. (2007). Parental separation, loss and psychosis in different ethnic groups : a case-control study. Psychological medicine, 37(4), 495-504. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291706009330
- Morgan, C., Charalambides, M., Hutchinson, G. et Murray, R. M. (2010). Migration, ethnicity, and psychosis : toward a sociodevelopmental model. Schizophrenia bulletin, 36(4), 655-664. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbq051
- Morgan, C., Fearon, P., Lappin, J., Heslin, M., Donoghue, K., Lomas, B., Reininghaus U., Onyejiaka A., Croudace T., Jones P.B., Murray R.M., Doody G.A. et Dazzan, P. (2017). Ethnicity and long-term course and outcome of psychotic disorders in a UK sample : the AeSOP-10 study. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 211(2), 88-94. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.116.193342
- Morgan, C., Knowles, G. et Hutchinson, G. (2019). Migration, ethnicity and psychoses : evidence, models and future directions. World Psychiatry, 18(3), 247-258. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20655
- Myers, N. (2019). Beyond the “Crazy House” : Mental/Moral Breakdowns and Moral Agency in First-Episode Psychosis. Ethos, 47(1), 13-34. https://doi.org/10.1111/etho.12225
- Nagy, G. A., LeMaire, K., Miller, M. L., Howard, M., Wyatt, K. et Zerubavel, N. (2019). Development and implementation of a multicultural consultation service within an academic medical center. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 26(4), 656-675.
- Nelson, S. E. et Wilson, K. (2017). The mental health of Indigenous peoples in Canada : A critical review of research. Social Science & Medicine, 176, 93-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.01.021
- Nielsen, S. S. et Krasnik, A. (2010). Poorer self-perceived health among migrants and ethnic minorities versus the majority population in Europe : a systematic review. International journal of public health, 55(5), 357-371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-010-0145-4
- OnTrackNY. (2018). Delivering culturally competent care in FEP manual. Retrieved from NYSP OnTrack Manual Template (nyculturalcompetence.org)
- Ouellet-Plamondon, C., Rousseau, C., Nicole, L. et Abdel-Baki, A. (2015). Engaging immigrants in early psychosis treatment : a clinical challenge. Psychiatric Services, 66(7), 757-759. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201300284
- Orygen. (2016a). Clinical practice in early psychosis. Working with cultural diversity in early psychosis. https://www.orygen.org.au/Training/Resources/Psychosis/Clinical-practice-points/Working-with-cultural-diversity-in-early-psychosis/Working-with-cultural-diversity-in-early-psychosis?ext
- Orygen. (2016b). Australian clinical guidelines for early psychosis. https://www.orygen.org.au/Campus/Expert-Network/Resources/Free/Clinical-Practice/Australian-Clinical-Guidelines-for-Early-Psychosis/Australian-Clinical-Guidelines-for-Early-Psychosis.aspx?ext
- Pearce, J., Rafiq, S., Simpson, J. et Varese, F. (2019). Perceived discrimination and psychosis : a systematic review of the literature. Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology, 54(9), 1023-1044. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-019-01729-3
- Pope, M. A., Jordan, G., Venkataraman, S., Malla, A. K. et Iyer, S. N. (2019). “Everyone has a role” : perspectives of service users with first-episode psychosis, family caregivers, treatment providers, and policymakers on responsibility for supporting individuals with mental health problems. Qualitative health research, 29(9), 1299-1312. https://doi.org/10.1177 %2F1049732318812422
- Qureshi, A., Collazos, F., Ramos, M. et Casas, M. (2008). Cultural competency training in psychiatry. European psychiatry, 23, 49-58.
- Reininghaus, U., Craig, T. K., Fisher, H. L., Hutchinson, G., Fearon, P., Morgan, K., Dazzan, P., Doody, G.A., Jones, P.B., Murray, R.M. et Morgan, C. (2010). Ethnic identity, perceptions of disadvantage, and psychosis : findings from the AESOP study. Schizophrenia Research, 124(1-3), 43-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2010.08.038
- Rosen, C., Jones, N., Longden, E., Chase, K. A., Shattell, M., Melbourne, J. K., Keedy, S. et Sharma, R. P. (2017). Exploring the intersections of trauma, structural adversity, and psychosis among a primarily African-American sample : a mixed-methods analysis. Frontiers in psychiatry, 8, 57. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00057
- Rousseau, C., Key, F. et Measham, T. (2005). The work of culture in the treatment of psychosis in migrant adolescents. Clinical child psychology and psychiatry, 10(3), 305-317. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1359104505053751
- Rousseau, C., Johnson-Lafleur, J., Papazian-Zohrabian, G. et Measham, T. (2020). Interdisciplinary case discussions as a training modality to teach cultural formulation in child mental health. Transcultural psychiatry, 57(4), 581-593.
- Rotenberg, M., Tuck, A., Ptashny, R. et McKenzie, K. (2017). The role of ethnicity in pathways to emergency psychiatric services for clients with psychosis. BMC psychiatry, 17(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1285-3
- Savin, D. et Martinez, R. (2006). Cross-cultural boundary dilemmas : a graded-risk assessment approach. Transcultural psychiatry, 43(2), 243-258. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1363461506064853
- Schwartz, E. K., Docherty, N. M., Najolia, G. M. et Cohen, A. S. (2019). Exploring the racial diagnostic bias of schizophrenia using behavioral and clinical-based measures. Journal of abnormal psychology, 128(3), 263. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/abn0000409
- Selten, J. P., Van Der Ven, E. et Termorshuizen, F. (2020). Migration and psychosis : a meta-analysis of incidence studies. Psychological medicine, 50(2), 303-313. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291719000035
- Smith, G. N., Boydell, J., Murray, R. M., Flynn, S., McKay, K., Sherwood, M. et Honer, W. G. (2006). The incidence of schizophrenia in European immigrants to Canada. Schizophrenia research, 87(1-3), 205-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2006.06.024
- Stasiulis, E., Gibson, B. E., Webster, F. et Boydell, K. M. (2020). Resisting governance and the production of trust in early psychosis intervention. Social Science & Medicine, 253, 112948. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.112948
- Statistics Canada. (2016a). Immigration and ethnocultural diversity : Key results from the 2016 Census. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/171025/dq171025b-eng.htm?indid=14428-1&indgeo=0
- Statistics Canada. (2016b). 150 years of immigration in Canada. Retrieved from https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-630-x/11-630-x2016006-eng.htm .
- Statistics Canada. (2016c). Statistics on Indigenous peoples. Retrieved from https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/subjects-start/indigenous_peoples
- Statistics Canada (2020). Table 37-10-0086-01 Postsecondary enrolments, by status of student in Canada, country of citizenship and gender. https://doi.org/10.25318/3710008601-eng
- Stevens, L. H., Spencer, H. M. et Turkington, D. (2017). Identifying Four Subgroups of Trauma in psychosis : Vulnerability, psychopathology, and Treatment. Frontiers in psychiatry, 8, 21. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00021
- Sue, S. (2006). Cultural competency : From philosophy to research and practice. Journal of community Psychology, 34(2), 237-245. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20095
- Tarricone, I., D’Andrea, G., Jongsma, H. E., Tosato, S., Gayer-Anderson, C., Stilo, S. A., Suprani F., Iyegbe C., van der Ven E., Quattrone D., di Forti, M., Velthorst E., Menezes P.R., Arango C., Parellada, M., Lasalvia A., La Cascia C., Ferraro L., Bobes J., … Morgan, C. (2021). Migration history and risk of psychosis : results from the multinational EU-GEI study. Psychological Medicine, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329172000495X
- Tapsell, R., Hallett, C. et Mellsop, G. (2018). The rate of mental health service use in New Zealand as analysed by ethnicity. Australasian Psychiatry, 26(3), 290-293. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1039856217715989
- Tervalon, M. et Murray-Garcia, J. (1998). Cultural humility versus cultural competence : A critical distinction in defining physician training outcomes in multicultural education. Journal of health care for the poor and underserved, 9(2), 117-125. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.2010.0233
- Thomson, M. S., Chaze, F., George, U. et Guruge, S. (2015). Improving immigrant populations’ access to mental health services in Canada : a review of barriers and recommendations. Journal of immigrant and minority health, 17(6), 1895-1905. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-015-0175-3
- Van Der Ven, E., Bourque, F., Joober, R., Selten, J. P. et Malla, A. K. (2012). Comparing the clinical presentation of first-episode psychosis across different migrant and ethnic minority groups in Montreal, Quebec. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 57(5), 300-308. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F070674371205700505
- Veling, W., Selten, J. P., Mackenbach, J. P. et Hoek, H. W. (2007). Symptoms at first contact for psychotic disorder : comparison between native Dutch and ethnic minorities. Schizophrenia Research, 95(1-3), 30-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2007.06.024
- Veling, W., Hoek, H. W., Wiersma, D. et Mackenbach, J. P. (2010). Ethnic identity and the risk of schizophrenia in ethnic minorities : a case-control study. Schizophrenia bulletin, 36(6), 1149-1156. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbp032
- Veling, W., Pot-Kolder, R., Counotte, J., van Os, J. et van der Gaag, M. (2016). Environmental social stress, paranoia and psychosis liability : a virtual reality study. Schizophrenia bulletin, 42(6), 1363-1371. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbw031
- Weinfeld, M. (1999). The Challenge of Ethnic Match : Minority Origin Professionals in. Ethnicity, politics, and public policy : Case studies in Canadian diversity, 117.
- Whitley, R., Kirmayer, L. J. et Groleau, D. (2006). Understanding immigrants’ reluctance to use mental health services : a qualitative study from Montreal. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 5 https://doi.org/10.1177%2F070674370605100401
- Whitley, R. et Drake, R. E. (2010). Recovery : a dimensional approach. Psychiatric services, 61(12), 1248-1250. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.2010.61.12.1248
- Whitley, R. (2016). Ethno-racial variation in recovery from severe mental illness : a qualitative comparison. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 61(6), 340-347. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0706743716643740
- Williams, R. (1999). Cultural safety. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 23(2), 213-214. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-842X.1999.tb01240.x
- Zandi, T., Havenaar, J. M., Limburg-Okken, A. G., Van Es, H., Sidali, S., Kadri, N., et al. (2008). The need for culture sensitive diagnostic procedures. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 43(3), 244-250. (See PDF)
- Zandi, T., Havenaar, J. M., Smits, M., Limburg-Okken, A. G., Van Es, H., Cahn, W., Algra, A., Kahn, R.S. et Van Den Brink, W. (2010). First contact incidence of psychotic disorders among native Dutch and Moroccan immigrants in the Netherlands : influence of diagnostic bias. Schizophrenia Research, 119(1-3), 27-33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2010.02.1059
- Zandi, T., Havenaar, J. M., Laan, W., Kahn, R. S. et van den Brink, W. (2016). Effects of a culturally sensitive assessment on symptom profiles in native Dutch and Moroccan patients with a first psychosis referral. Transcultural Psychiatry, 53(1), 45-59. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1363461515577288