Antonini, Rachele, Cirillo, Letizia, Rossao, Linda and Torresi, Ira, eds. (2017): Non-professional Interpreting and Translation. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 415 p.

At the time of publication of this book, the Benjamins Translation Library series was under the editing supervision of Yves Gambier of the University of Turku and Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University. Gambier is now an honorary editor, and Robert A. Valdeón has taken the reins. The first volume was published in 1994, and this book represents its 129^th publication. With a stated goal of stimulating research and training in both Translation and Interpreting Studies, the series has accelerated its rhythm in recent years, with nine more books following this one in 2017 alone. While some volumes focus solely on either translation or interpreting, many address research efforts from a combined perspective.

Three of the four editors of Non-professional Interpreting and Translation, namely Antonini, Rossato and Torresi, are from the University of Bologna, while Cirillo is associated with the University of Siena. The editors were the founding members of a research project called In MedIO PUER(I) and were responsible for organizing the First International Conference on Non-Professional Interpreting and Translation (NPIT1) in 2012. The book also refers to the second conference in 2014 but does not address the third one which occurred in 2016.

The University of Bologna sponsored the In MedIO PUER(I) project to facilitate research about child language brokering in Italy. Despite the general title of this volume, it is heavily weighted to research conducted in Italy, and over one-third focuses on child language brokering. Also, it is somewhat ironic that very little is said about written translation. This is consistent with the speaker lineup for the three NPIT conferences, which concentrate almost exclusively on interpretation. However, a wide variety of interesting articles are presented, and they serve to validate the practice of non-professional interpreting and translation (hereinafter called NPIT).

The Introduction by the editors points out that it is high time for academia to acknowledge and research NPIT, a long-standing practice that was not even mentioned in translation handbooks until a few years ago. A recurrent theme throughout the book is that immigration has accelerated the incidence of NPIT, and it will only increase in the future. It meets a demand, and translation scholars should be ready to provide guidance to this interdisciplinary activity, just as other disciplines are doing in their interactions with non-professionals. NPIT research basically has two branches: children (language brokering) and adults. This volume highlights NPIT that takes place in institutional settings.

This introductory chapter attempts to standardize the terminology for this activity. As a researcher in a similar area, I have struggled with which term to use to classify my research. “Volunteer” seems too vague, and “amateur” is often perceived as being pejorative except in the sports world. Brian Harris’s moniker, “natural translation,” indicates unstructured activity, while his blog title “unprofessional” leaves a negative impression. “Ad hoc” appears to be too spontaneous. The editors clearly state why they feel “non-professional” is the most unbiased term, since it is simply defined by its opposite: “professional.” A professional interpreter or translator is recruited, receives payment, is held to certain standards, and gains prestige. A non-professional interpreter or translator is voluntary and unpaid, may not have to adhere to certain norms, and may remain unnoticed. The book points out that the correct way to understand “non-professional” is to focus on who rather than on how.

Section 1 introduces the current state of NPIT research and some general issues. A chapter by Harris explores the reasoning behind his “Unprofessional Translation” blog which he started in 2009. He felt that the area was being overlooked, and that a blog was the quickest way to provide information and stimulate interest. However, in a blog format it is hard to assess readership and to read all the information about a specific topic. Harris posits that all bilinguals have some measure of ability to translate, and that age and expertise are not the only considerations; subject knowledge is crucial. For this reason, non-professional church interpreters and written religious translators may perform better than professionals who have no personal knowledge of the setting or lingo. In the next chapter, Boguslawa Whyatt goes even further with the idea of innate ability, stating that the human brain is designed to decode and encode meaning. This is illustrated by the common ability to paraphrase oneself and use body language. The natural predisposition of bilinguals can progress to untrained ability, to trained skill, to competence, and eventually to expertise. Not everyone will invest in the education or experience required to reach the final level.

Following this, Marjorie Faulstich Orellana discusses the past and future of language brokering research, a practice that was basically invisible until the 1990s. At that time, it attracted interest in the areas of educational research and developmental psychology but was overlooked by Translation and Interpreting Studies until recent years. Language brokering is a fact of immigrant life, as children quickly pick up a new language and use it to assist their parents in various institutional settings. They also help their classmates who are struggling to understand what their teachers are saying. While factors can vary between populations and cultures, research is being done about how children feel about it, and whether it is helpful or harmful to children to be language brokers. The author suggests that researchers should begin with the institutional setting, then look for language brokering that takes place within it.

The second section of this book contains eight articles related to NPIT in healthcare, community and public services, and covers varied settings in several countries. Claudio Baraldi and Laura Gavioli reveal that most Italian institutions have intercultural mediators rather than professional interpreters. Their lack of professional training is compensated by their cultural competence, as illustrated by a study of African women and medical consultations with Italian doctors related to their pregnancies. The mediators can manage their autonomy and bridge the cultural divide between doctor and patient, resulting in an effective consultation. In the following chapter, Anna Claudia Ticca examines possible negative consequences of lay interpreters in medical consultations. Research conducted in a Mexican village demonstrates that such volunteers are not just translating, but attempting to match symptoms to sicknesses, which is obviously outside their realm of expertise. It seems that the issue is not language differences, but a lack of clear understanding of roles in this setting.

Sonja Pöllabauer discusses an interesting experiment conducted in Austria, where public service interpreters have little or no training. From recorded interviews, she found that the lack of second language skills of the interpreters results in misunderstandings, omissions and vagueness. This is compounded by insufficient knowledge of highly specialized terminology which, although it only constitutes 5–10% of the total content, severely hinders the client’s understanding. She proposes that institutions should provide training for interpreters they use regularly, or that the authority figures should avoid specialized vocabulary. As for interpreting in prisons, one of the editors, Rossato, exposes the poor conditions of Italian jails. Basic human rights are not respected, so interpreters are very low on the priority list. Generally, bilingual inmates are called on to interpret for interactions between staff and newly arrived prisoners. By way of a written questionnaire, this activity was analyzed and found to be both pleasurable and burdensome. Along with a sense of pride comes frustration, as well as the consciousness of a weighty responsibility. From the experience, Rossato was able to build a more effective survey tool to use in further research.

The next two chapters focus on church interpreting, a very common activity in NPIT. The first study took place in a Pentecostal church in Switzerland and was conducted by Adelina Hild. She found that the church’s interpreters do not place much importance on preparation, but have no problem interpreting specialized vocabulary. They can self-correct and self-regulate, but their performance deteriorates over long sessions as they become tired. Sari Hokkanen, a professional interpreter, uses autoethnography to provide a personal perspective on the intersection between her professional identity and her identity as a Pentecostal when doing volunteer interpreting in her church in Finland. She speaks of her engagement in the service and how her knowledge of spiritual concepts helps her give a more authentic interpretation. Her self-reflection highlights the fact that as an interpreter gains experience and becomes more comfortable, they feel less need to prepare. She also feels she can have a religious experience while interpreting, since she is comfortable with the activity and setting.

The last two chapters in this section discuss two diverse subjects: sign language translation and language-related disaster relief. Nadja Grbić introduces the activity of sign language translation of text, through the example of the Austrian Jewish Museum website. At first glance, this translation may seem unnecessary, but many deaf people actually have limited reading skills. The challenges that come to light are the lack of a written code for sign language (there are many variations), and the power struggle between hearing and deaf sign language interpreters. As for Regina Rogl, her research into the role of interpreters and translators following the terrible earthquake in Haiti in 2010 highlights the role of social media and the Internet in connecting volunteers. There have not been very many case studies of humanitarian interpreting efforts, but communication is crucial to their success. Thousands of people were willing to help but needed a way to connect. Some went onsite to offer assistance, while others provided interpreting services via Skype. Over 40,000 emergency text messages were translated, which allowed workers to find wounded survivors and assist them. This is a poignant example of the intrinsic value of NPIT.

The final section is exclusively about NPIT performed by children, and has seven chapters, whose authors include three of the editors. First, Claudia V. Angelelli emphasizes the importance of learning about the perceptions of young language brokers who feel obligated to help their parents. The activity can reinforce the parent-child bond, and some studies demonstrate that it improves academic performance and self-confidence. However, sometimes children are expected to deal with content above their maturity level and for which they do not have the proper vocabulary. Then Tony Cline, Sarah Crafter, Guida de Abreu and Lindsay O’Dell discuss a study conducted in England of teenage language brokers. They show that girls are more often involved in this activity than boys. Those with experience in language brokering find it to be a normal activity even for children, while others think it somewhat odd. The teens seem to be more at ease with interpreting for their parents if they feel it is a temporary situation, because the parents are making efforts to learn the language.

The three articles that follow, each written by an editor, all refer to the In MedIO PUER(I) study. Cirillo focuses on the perspectives of junior high school language brokers and their teachers. While mixed feelings are attached to the activity, the majority are positive. The youth enjoy assisting their family more than helping teachers and regard the activity as part of their chores. Teachers feel that language brokering should be avoided in certain situations which are too mature for the youth involved. Antonini analyzes the effects of language brokering on children’s lives and explains how the study was conducted as a school competition called “Budding Translators,” to collect narratives (written or in pictures) about child language brokering. Some of the factors revealed are: identity, multilingualism, emotional impact, difficulty learning Italian, strategies, and humour. The contest served to give visibility to the practice of child language brokering, and Antonini feels the talents of these children should be nurtured, as they may represent future interpreters or translators. Toressi highlights the younger participants in the contest, who provided drawings with captions that prove to be very eye opening. She examines the visual encoding of space, colour, angle, etc. to get a glimpse into the emotional relationship between language brokers and the people among whom they mediate. She concludes that the children see the activity as part of everyday life, but there is an us/them element that comes through in the drawings.

The last two chapters switch from the feelings of child language brokers to their strategies and development. Elaine Bauer talks about the agency of the interpreter/translator, based on a study done in the UK among adults who reflect on their childhood activities of language brokering. They reveal how they often manipulated or censored information for their own purposes (such as a discussion of poor grades during a parent-teacher interview) or because they thought it was irrelevant. They sometimes had to intervene between a parent and another person to make the discussion more palatable. Despite the pressure these situations produced, it helped them to develop their self-confidence and decision-making abilities and gave their parents dignity and a voice in an unfamiliar country. Jemina Napier concludes with a multi-country research project about professional sign language interpreters whose careers developed from their child language brokering activities for deaf parents. Such children are usually not deaf themselves and may find themselves caught between two worlds.

As set out in the book description, this text does represent the first real academic effort to acknowledge the existence of NPIT and examine the phenomenon. It seems unfortunate that the editors chose to concentrate almost solely on interpretation. From my experience and research, I know that there are many areas of non-professional written translation just waiting to be discovered by researchers. It has proved to be extremely difficult to find academic writings on this type of activity. Perhaps the title of the book is a bit misleading or too general, given its focus on interpretation and the fact that much of the research was conducted within one country, Italy.

However, the book does provide insight into diverse areas of non-professional interpretation and lays the groundwork for delving deeper into NPIT. I found the text quite easy to read in terms of content. Regrettably, it seems that a final editing by a native English speaker was overlooked, as there are numerous incorrect prepositions and some awkward expressions. Yet, as with all John Benjamins publications, the book is beautifully bound, with clear type. The chapters are arranged in three sections which group the research around certain topics. I believe the book will be very valuable to interpreters and researchers in the field of interpretation, while at the same time firmly establishing a toehold for NPIT in the domain of Translation and Interpreting Studies, perhaps with a view to eventually creating a subdomain.