Résumés
Abstract
This article analyzes the micro-powers of Swedish “cruel” and “non-cruel” bureaucrats using various logics of control, “tiny acts” enacted with pens, computers, and imposed assignments to condition asylum-seeking peoples’ lives and fragment their hope. Based on interviews with asylum-seeking Afghans and observations of their meetings with authorities, I argue that the bureaucratic treatment of Afghans in Sweden is a form of state-sanctioned racist violence and “departheid” executed to exclude discredited people from the welfare state. The article draws attention to a rapid downhill slide regarding asylum rights in Sweden since 2015 and the harm caused to asylum-seeking people.
Keywords:
- asylum,
- hope,
- bureaucratic cruelty,
- departheid,
- ethnography
Résumé
Cet article analyse les micro-pouvoirs des bureaucrates suédois «cruels» et «non cruels» qui utilisent diverses logiques de contrôle, des «actes minuscules» réalisés à l’aide de stylos, d’ordinateurs et de tâches imposées, pour conditionner la vie des demandeurs d’asile et fragmenter leur espoir. M’appuyant sur des entretiens avec des demandeurs d’asile afghans et l’observation de leurs rencontres avec les autorités, je soutiens que le traitement bureaucratique des Afghans en Suède constitue une forme de violence raciste sanctionnée par l’État et de «departheid» exercé afin d’exclure les personnes discréditées de l’État-providence. L’article attire l’attention sur le recul rapide des droits d’asile en Suède depuis 2015 et sur les préjudices causés aux personnes demandant l’asile.
Parties annexes
Bibliography
- Abdelhady, D. (2020). Media constructions of the refugee crisis in Sweden: Institutions and the challenges of refugee governance. In D. Abdelhady, N. Gren, & and M. Joormann (Eds.), Refugees and the violence of welfare bureaucracies in northern Europe (pp. 122–143). Manchester University Press.
- Abdelhady, D., Gren, N., & Joormann, M. (Eds.). (2020). Refugees and the violence of welfare bureaucracies in northern Europe. Manchester University Press.
- Act (2016:381) amending the Act (1994:137) on the reception of asylum seekers and others [Sweden].
- Act (2016:752) on temporary restrictions on the possibility of obtaining a residence permit in Sweden [Sweden]. https://www.riksdagen.se/sv/dokument-lagar/dokument/svensk-forfattningssamling/lag-2016752-om-tillfalliga-begransningar-av_sfs-2016-752
- Act (2021:765) amending the Aliens Act [Sweden]. https://svenskforfattningssamling.se/doc/2021765.html
- AIDA (Asylum Information Database). (2015, December). Detriment of the doubt: Age assessment of unaccompanied asylum-seeking children (Legal Briefing No. 6). European Council of Refugees and Exiles. https://www.refworld.org/docid/568fcfb94.html
- AIDA (Asylum Information Database). (2017). Country report: Sweden. European Council of Refugees and Exiles. https://www.asylumineurope.org/sites/default/files/report-download/aida_se_2017update.pdf
- Ahmed, S. (2010). The promise of happiness. Duke University Press.
- Ahmed, S. (2018, December 20). Strategic inefficiency. feministkilljoys. https://feministkilljoys.com/2018/12/20/strategic-inefficiency/
- Anderson, B. (2017). The politics of pests: Immigration and the invasive other. Social Research: An International Quarterly, 84(1), 7–28. https://doi.org/10.1353/sor.2017.0003
- Arendt, H. (1969, February 27). Reflections on violence. The New York Times Review of Books. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1969/02/27/a-special-supplement-reflections-on-violence/
- Bauman, Z. (1995). Life in fragments. Wiley-Blackwell.
- Belabas, W., & Gerrits, L. (2017). Going the extra mile? How street‐level bureaucrats deal with the integration of immigrants. Social Policy & Administration, 51(1), 133–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/spol.12184
- Bendixsen, S., & Eriksen, T. H. (2021). Time and the other: Waiting and hope among irregular migrants. In M. K. Janeja & A. Bandak (Eds.), Ethnographies of waiting: Doubt, hope and uncertainty (pp. 87–112). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003085317-4
- Bhatia, M. (2020). The permission to be cruel: Street‑level bureaucrats and harms against people seeking asylum. Critical Criminology, 28, 277–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-020-09515-3
- Bhatia, M., & Lentin, R. (2022). Migration and racist state violence: Introduction. State Crime Journal, 11(1), 5–11. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48675910
- Brekke, J.-P., & Brochmann, G. (2014). Stuck in transit: Secondary migration of asylum seekers in Europe, national differences, and the Dublin regulation. Journal of Refugee Studies, 28(2), 145–162. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/feu028
- Eagleton, T. (2017). Hope without optimism. Yale University Press. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvj7wnnv
- Elsrud, T. (2020). Resisting social death with dignity: The strategy of re-escaping among young Asylum-seekers in the wake of Sweden’s sharpened asylum laws. European Journal of Social Work, 23(3), 500–513. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691457.2020.1719476
- Elsrud, T., Gruber, S., & Lundberg, A. (Eds.). (2021). Rättssäkerheten och Solidariteten—vad hände? En antologi om mottagande av människor på flykt [The rule of law and solidarity—what happened to it? An anthology about the reception of asylum-seeking people]. Linköping University Press.
- Elsrud, T., Lundberg, A., & Söderman, E. (2023). Transversal sanctuary enactments in Sweden: Challenges, opportunities and implications. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 49(14), 3629–3648. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2023.2198810
- Eurostat. (2023, August 16). First instance decisions on applications by citizenship, age and sex—Annual aggregated data. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/MIGR_ASYDCFSTA__custom_7115207/default/table?lang=en
- Fassin, D. (2015). Introduction: Governing precarity. In D. Fassin & Y. Bouagga (Eds.), At the heart of the state: The moral world of institutions (pp. 1–14). Pluto Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt183p5tb
- Fine, M. (2017). Just research in contentious times: Widening the methodological imagination. Teachers College Press.
- Fontanari, E. (2017). It’s my life: The temporalities of refugees and asylum-seekers within the European border regime. Etnografia e ricerca qualitativa, 1, 25–54. https://doi.org/10.3240/86886
- Fontanari, E. (2020). Lives in transit: An ethnographic study of refugees’ subjectivity across European borders. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351234061
- Foucault, M. (1979). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (A. M. Sheridan, Trans.). Penguin.
- Galtung, J. (1969). Violence, peace, and peace research. Journal of Peace Research, 6(3), 167–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/002234336900600301
- Garvik, M., & Valenta, M. (2021). Seeking asylum in Scandinavia: A comparative analysis of recent restrictive policy responses towards unaccompanied Afghan minors in Denmark, Sweden and Norway. Comparative Migration Studies, 9, Article 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40878-020-00221-1
- Gupta, A. (2012). Red tape: Bureaucracy, structural violence, and poverty in India. Duke University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv125jn9d
- Hagström, A., Hollander, A.-C., & Mittendorfer-Rutz, E. (2018, January 31). Kartläggning av självskadebeteende, suicidförsök, suicid och annan dödlighet bland ensamkommande barn och unga [Mapping of self-harming behaviour, suicide attempts, suicide and other types of mortality among unaccompanied children and young people]. Karolinska Institutet. https://flyktning.net/ressurs/kartl-ggning-av-sj-lvskadebeteende-suicidf-rs-k-suicid-och-annan-d-dlighet-bland-ensamkommande-barn-och-unga
- Hansen, P. (2021). A modern migration theory: An alternative economic approach to failed EU policy (1st ed.). Agenda Publishing. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1mvw8pm
- Hedlund, D. (2016). Drawing the limits: Unaccompanied minors in Swedish asylum policy and procedure. Holmbergs. https://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn%3Anbn%3Ase%3Auu%3Adiva-409628
- Herz, M., Lalander, P., & Elsrud, T. (2022). Governing through hope: An exploration of hope and social change in an asylum context. Emotions and Society, 4(2), 222–237. https://doi.org/10.1332/263169021X16528637795399
- Herzfeld, M. (1992). The social production of indifference: Exploring the symbolic roots of Western bureaucracy. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003135029
- Jacobsen, C. M., Karlsen, M. A., & Khosravi, S. (Eds.). (2020). Waiting and the temporalities of irregular migration. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429351730.
- Johannesson, L. (2017). In courts we trust: Administrative justice in Swedish migration courts. Stockholm University. https://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn%3Anbn%3Ase%3Asu%3Adiva-138909
- Kalir, B. (2019). Departheid: The draconian governance of illegalized migrants in Western states. Conflict and Society, 5(1), 19–40. https://doi.org/10.3167/arcs.2019.050102
- Kazemi, B. (2021). Unaccompanied minors (un-)made in Sweden: Ungrievable lives and access to rights produced through policy [Doctoral thesis, Gothenburg University]. Gothenburg University Publications Electronic Archive. http://hdl.handle.net/2077/68257
- Khosravi, S. (Ed.). (2021). Waiting: A project in conversation [Transcript]. Columbia University Press.
- Kleist, N., & Thorsen, D. (2016). Hope and uncertainty in contemporary African migration. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315659916
- Krzyżanowski, M., Triandafyllidou, A., & Wodak, R. (2018). The mediatization and the politicization of the “refugee crisis” in Europe. Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, 16(1–2), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/15562948.2017.1353189
- Lems, A., Oester, K., & Strasser, S. (2020). Children of the crisis: Ethnographic perspectives on unaccompanied refugee youth in and en route to Europe. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 46(2), 315–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2019.1584697
- Lipsky, M. (2010). Street-level bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the individual in public service. Russell Sage Foundation. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7758/9781610447713
- lisahunter, Emerald, E., & Martin, G. (2013). Participatory activist research in the globalised world: Social change through the cultural professions. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4426-4
- Lundberg, A. (2017). Medicinska åldersbedömningar [Medical age examinations]. In E. Sundberg, & M. Kjellstrand (Eds.), Hör detta och lyssna till det: En antologi om flykt (pp. 68–73). Allt åt alla Malmö.
- Malmqvist, E., Furberg, E., & Sandman, L. (2018). Ethical aspects of medical age assessment in the asylum process: A Swedish perspective. International Journal of Legal Medicine, 132, 815–823. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-017-1730-3
- McDonald, C., & Marston, G. (2006). Room to move? Professional discretion at the frontline of welfare-to-work. Australian Journal of Social Issues, 41(2), 171–182. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1839-4655.2006.tb00004.x
- Mostad, P., & Tamsen, F. (2019). Error rates for unvalidated medical age assessment procedures. International Journal of Legal Medicine, 133, 613–623. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-018-1916-3
- Näre, L. (2020). “Finland kills with a pen”—Asylum seekers’ protest against bureaucratic violence as politics of human rights. Citizenship Studies, 24(8), 979–993. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621025.2020.1769559
- Noll, G. (2016). Junk science? Four arguments against the radiological age assessment of unaccompanied minors seeking asylum. International Journal of Refugee Law, 28(2), 234–250. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijrl/eew020
- Nordling, V. (2017). Destabilizing citizenship practices? Social work and undocumented migrants in Sweden [Doctoral thesis, Lund University]. Lund University Publications. https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/publication/93c1965b-df73-4a9b-b234-4e07ee36b9b6
- SCB—Statistics Sweden [Statistikmyndigheten]. (2016, March 18). Det stora antalet asylsökande under 2015 ökade inte flyktinginvandringen nämnvärt [The large number of asylum seekers in 2015 did not significantly increase refugee immigration]. https://www.scb.se/hitta-statistik/statistik-efter-amne/befolkning/befolkningens-sammansattning/befolkningsstatistik/pong/statistiknyhet/asylsokande-grund-for-bosattning-utlandsk-bakgrund-medborgarskapsbyten-adoptioner-hushallsstatistik-och-medellivslangder-2015/
- Schierup, C. U., & Ålund, A. (2011). The end of Swedish exceptionalism? Citizenship, neoliberalism and the politics of exclusion. Race & Class, 53(1), 45–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396811406780
- Schütze, C. (2019). Attitudes matter: Perceptions towards welfare work with migrants in Swedish welfare organisations [Doctoral thesis, Lund University]. Lund University Publications. https://www.lu.se/lup/publication/0451d47c-1c6b-4c4f-b131-3c1a668e2d74
- Skodo, A. (2017, February 20). How Afghans became second-class asylum seekers. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/how-afghans-became-second-class-asylum-seekers-72437
- Skodo, A. (2018). Migrant smuggling, reasons for fleeing, and uses of asylum capital among Afghan asylum seekers in Sweden. Nidaba: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Middle East Studies, 1–11. https://portal.research.lu.se/en/publications/migrant-smuggling-reasons-for-fleeing-and-uses-of-asylum-capital-
- Skodo, A. (2020). Lesson for the future or threat to sovereignty? Contesting the meaning of the 2015 refugee crisis in Sweden. In D. Abdelhady, D. N. Gren, & M. Joormann (Eds.), Refugees and the violence of welfare bureaucracies in northern Europe (pp. 50–66). Manchester University Press. https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526146847.00010
- Stockdale, K. (2019). Social and political dimensions of hope. Journal of Social Philosophy, 50(1), 28–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/josp.12270
- Stockdale, K. (2021). Hope under oppression. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197563564.001.0001
- Stretmo, L. (2014). Governing the unaccompanied child—Media, policy and practice [Doctoral thesis, Gothenburg University]. Gothenburg University Publications Electronic Archive. https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/36106
- Sundström, M., & Obenius, H. (2020). (De-)legitimation of migration: A critical study of social media discourses. In D. Abdelhady, D. N. Gren, & M. Joormann (Eds.), Refugees and the violence of welfare bureaucracies in northern Europe (pp. 144–158). Manchester University Press. https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526146847.00016
- Svašek, M. (2010). On the move: Emotions and human mobility. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 36(6), 865–880. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691831003643322
- Swedish Migration Agency. (2023). Asyl [Asylum]. Retrieved August 7, 2023, from https://www.migrationsverket.se/Om-Migrationsverket/Statistik/Asyl.html
- Swedish National Audit Office [Riksrevisionen]. (2022). Waiting for the verdict—The migration courts' processing times in asylum cases [I väntan på dom—migrationsdomstolarnas handläggningstider i asylmål] (RIR 2022:5).
- Weber, M. (1958). The protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. Scribners.