Distance Education in Africa: A Longitudinal Study of the Perceptions of 2,416 Students

Distance Education (DE) holds particular promise for Africa, where higher education systems must cope with multiple constraints. However, there are many obstacles to the development of DE, including inadequate computer equipment and lack of professional skills. Against this background, this article presents the results of a longitudinal study on DE programs 1 offered to students in Africa. Using quantitative analyses of questionnaires and qualitative analyses of interviews, the contributions of DE to the professional development of Africans are examined in the aim of gaining a deeper understanding of the dynamics at play when students enroll in a DE program.


Mots-clés
formation à distance, Afrique, enseignement supérieur, développement professionnel, recrutement  (DE) programs have made a significant contribution to the development of higher education, even though the progress made to date lags behind expectations (Altbach, Reisberg, & Rumbley, 2009).DE "refers to approaches to learning that focus on freeing learners from constraints of time and place while offering flexible learning opportunities […] to both individual home-based learners and groups of learners in remote classrooms" (UNESCO, 2010).They hold particular educational promise for Africa, where universities are facing many challenges such as rapidly expanding enrollment, tight budgets, overcrowded classrooms and dismal job prospects (Butcher, Latchem, Mawoyo, & Levey, 2011).As a result, university education in Africa is lagging far behind the rest of the world: although the gross university enrollment rate was 26% worldwide in 2007, it stood at only 6% in sub-Saharan Africa (UNESCO Institute for Statistics [UIS], 2010).In this perspective, DE is often perceived as a viable alternative.DE delivery systems allow larger numbers of people to study at lower cost than in face-to-face classrooms (Evoh, 2010).The spatial and temporal flexibility also encourage a diversity of candidates, from university freshmen to working professionals (Aderinoye, Siaciwena, & Wright, 2009).In socioprofessional terms, distance education can help mitigate a longstanding and problematic trend in Africa (Muhirwa, 2012), namely the flight of African professionals to the North once they graduate (World Bank, 2009).Called the "brain drain" (Freitas, Levatino, & Pécoud, 2012), this trend is sometimes voluntary and other times not, and it is encouraged by grants and scholarships that enable African students to pursue their studies in Western countries.Whereas the original purpose of this funding was to reinvest African skills at home, the actual result has been the reverse: African countries have been deprived of a qualified workforce (Tessema, 2010).In this respect, distance education can make a radical change, because it allows learners to enroll in programs administered from outside their sociocultural environment while remaining at home, facilitating skills reinvestment within local communities (Jacquinot, 1993;Moughli, Semporé, & Koné, 2008).DE therefore has instrumental potential for training a qualified African workforce, as well as socioprofessional potential for building a qualified African workforce (Mufutumari, 2010), which explains why it features prominently in the 2006-2015 Action Plan for higher education developed by Seconde décennie de l'éducation pour l'Afrique [second decade of education in Africa].However, progress has been hampered by multiple obstructions: substandard computer equipment, disorganization, and lack of professional skills (Basaza, Milman, & Wright, 2010;Visser-Valfrey, Visser, & Moos, 2012).
Against this background, this article presents the results of a longitudinal study that targeted five objectives: • Describe the sociological and technological profile of the participants

Analysis
The quantitative survey data were analyzed using SPSS version 20.Descriptive analyses as well as cross analyses of the data were conducted using a series of variables that were relevant to the research objectives.Some questionnaire items were designed to elicit open-ended responses, which were analyzed qualitatively using QDA Miner.The conducted interviews were also analyzed using QDA Miner.This allowed coding text segments for content analysis using an approach inspired by L' Écuyer (1990) and Huberman andMiles (1991, 1994).

Sociological and technological profile of participants
In terms of place of residence, the surveyed population was majoritively representative of Africa: about 75% lived in the sub-Saharan region and 8% in the Maghreb.The other geographic regions represented were the Indian Ocean (6%), the Middle East (2.5%), the Caribbean islands (2%), Central and Eastern Europe (1%), and Asia-Pacific (<1%).
In terms of gender, despite the well-meaning and proactive policies of universities, women were largely underrepresented.In fact, as mentioned above, the distribution across all samples was about onethird women to two-thirds men.
In all samples, most participants were in the age range from 31 to 40 years (41-49% across study years), followed by 30 years or less (31-36%) and 41 years and older (15-22%).This distribution reflects the recruitment policies of the universities, which prefer younger students who at the same time already have some background in the study field.
A large percentage of respondents had earned a graduate university degree, and this percentage varied from one-third to over one-half across the samples.However, professional experience was relatively thin: half the respondents had less than five years' experience and almost 80% had less than 10 years' experience.In sum, in terms of sociological characteristics, we may consider that the participants entered the DE programs towards the start of their professional career, at an average age of 35 years, and many among them had earned a graduate university degree.
The technological profile of the respondents appeared to be related more to the year of graduation.For example, in the first two study years, about 75% of respondents said they had access to a computer at home, but this percentage rose to 94% in year three.A similar trend was found for Internet access at home, with about 50% for the first two years and 68% for the third.Independently of these fluctuations across years, the rates were consistently higher than expected, given the student-to-computer ratios in the participants' regions.When asked about where they most frequently went to access the Internet, the first place was the workplace, followed by home, and finally the university computer centers.
Some of the questions also addressed Web-use skills.The most popular tool by far was Wikipedia (almost 50% used it frequently or very frequently), followed by MSN-Messenger and Skype.Websites

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such as Facebook and YouTube were used significantly less often.However, use of these Websites showed an effect of age, with younger respondents using them more often for social exchanges and sharing, and older respondents making more use of technologies that directly met their learning or professional needs.
When participants' age is taken into account in the technological profile, a number of interesting differences can be identified, again depending on the study year.Thus, for year 2009-2010, younger participants (aged 30 years or less) accessed the Internet more often at work, whereas those aged from 31 to 40 years accessed it more often at cybercafés.The opposite trend was observed for years 2007-2008 and 2008-2009: the older and more experienced the participants, the more they tended to have computers at home, along with greater access to DE courses from home.In contrast, younger, less experienced participants made up for their lack of equipment by going to the university computer centers (years 2007-2008 and 2008-2009) or using the equipment available at their workplace (year 2009-2010).

Participants' motivations to enroll in a DE program
The analyses of the three years of data show clear and convergent motivations for enrolling in a DE program.As seen in the 2009-2010 data in Figure 1, the main intention was to pursue individual professional development and the professional promotions that come with further qualifications.Practical considerations also came into play, such as the possibility of combining education and work, the prestige conferred by a university diploma, and the fact that the diploma program was not offered locally.

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Although factors such as university prestige or the hope of pursuing studies at a northern university appear to have played a non-negligible role in the decision to enroll in a DE program, they had less weight.A case in point was that the hope to study at a university abroad was rarely realized, given that, depending on the graduation year, only 13 to 20% of the participants left their country after graduation.
In confirmation of the results on the questionnaire responses, the interview results revealed that the development of professional competencies was far from the primary motivation reported by participants, and it generally applied only to working professionals who wanted to continue their training: S2: 3 "I'm not looking to get a degree, but simply to acquire some more skills, some more assets, so I can upgrade my professional qualifications." This is not to say that enrolling in a DE program was not devoid of ambition.For most participants, it was meant to make up for a lack of training or to meet circumstantial needs: S1: "Since I'm a teacher, I was aware of the importance of communication techniques, because in our university culture, unfortunately, we receive purely agronomic training only, and the pedagogical aspect is completely neglected." In this respect, the motivation to take a DE course was not just the "added value" it would confer.The students also took the courses to earn higher salaries.In addition to professional development, whether out of a desire to improve or out of necessity, increased employment opportunities provided a further reason for taking a DE program: G7: "I wanted to come out as a qualified person, with degrees, not only to find a job in my country, but also abroad.They can give me more job opportunities." S3: "I visualize a goal that I have set for myself; that is, I want to have a degree." According to the respondents' expressed views, we may posit that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation played a role in their decision.Thus, the most frequently stated positions reveal either intrinsic motivation (personal growth) or extrinsic motivation (professional advancement).
Moreover, although they are not negligible, it is worth mentioning that the DE-specific factors follow behind in third and fourth place.In other words, the decision to take a DE over a face-toface program appears to have been made only after the decision was made to pursue professional development.Therefore, it was not the DE program itself-with all its advantages-that motivated them to enroll, but instead the need for further training.
The DE program was selected subsequently, for its particular advantages.
Depending on the study year, some interesting indications were obtained by crossing certain variables.For example, according to the 2009-2010 data, the hope to pursue studies at a northern university and university prestige appeared to be stronger decision factors for men than for women.Age also influenced the desire to pursue studies in the North, which was mentioned much less often by participants over 40 years old (2008-2009 data), probably due to the greater obligations associated with a more solidly established social status.
When comparing the opinions of participants enrolled in programs delivered by universities in the North versus the South, the main distinguishing characteristic was that students in northern-delivered programs were more inclined to enroll because the equivalent degree was not available in their region.The prestige of the university and the hope to continue studying at a northern university were also significantly more influential on the decision to take a program delivered by a northern university.

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The representation with which most respondents agreed, "DE reduces the travelling time for participants," was the most immediate and widely acknowledged benefit of DE.Moreover, the students were rarely able to resolve these problems by themselves, given that they were burdened with poor-quality infrastructures throughout the region or even the entire country.Looking at the change in percentages over time, note that these crashes become less frequent.However, given the time span between surveys, we should be cautious in attributing this positive trend to overall improvements in services.
The great majority of respondents were at ease using the latest software applications.In fact, over 80% said that they had few or very few problems using basic programs for word processing, spreadsheets, or presentations.Less than 5% said that they had major problems.
Furthermore, the education platforms, which were almost all the same across the training programs, generally caused no problems.Depending on the study year, from 60 to 80% of users found them easy or very easy to use.Only the more specialized applications, such as Web page design software, posed appreciable difficulty.
As for the computers themselves, from 64% (in 2008-2009) to 73% (in 2009-2010) of respondents felt that their equipment was satisfactory or very satisfactory at work and at home.Of those attending a digital campus, 80% felt that the available equipment was satisfactory or very satisfactory.
Concerning assistance for resolving technical problems, about 65% reported that a resource person at the delivering university was frequently or always available.However, in practice, they usually asked for help from another DE staff such as a tutor or professor.Alternatively, 50% of respondents sou-ght help from a colleague on site or from another student.Problem solving appeared to follow a gradient: the participants' first strategy was individual trial and error, followed by help from peers (students, colleagues, acquaintances), and finally remote help by a professor, technician, or tutor, whom they contacted by phone or via the platform.
In light of these results, it appears that the vast majority of participants enjoyed highly satisfactory learning conditions when it came to the materials and technical assistance.Apart from power blackouts and Internet crashes, which the educators had no way of controlling, there were very few technical problems, and the support provided to resolve them was generally deemed adequate.
Concerning the pedagogical aspects, some were viewed as positive or even very positive, but others were perceived more negatively.Among the positive aspects were the support materials and documentation for the courses, the teaching methods, and the assessments and exams, which were reported as appropriate or very appropriate by a large majority of respondents (over 80% in 2008-2009 and slightly less in 2009-2010).On the other hand, some aspects related to program organization appeared to be considerably less satisfactory.Thus, from 60% (in 2009-2010) to 74% (in 2008-2009) of respondents felt that the learning pace was intense or very intense (the descriptor "too intense" was not offered as a response choice).
In addition, the results on workloads and deadlines for handing in assignments appear to differ considerably among respondents.Regardless of study year, about 34% of respondents felt that the workload was reasonable or less than expected, whereas 62% found it heavy or very heavy.A similar trend was found for assignment deadlines, which from 34 to 37% considered convenient or very convenient (depending on the year), whereas 39% considered them more or less difficult to meet, and 27% considered them difficult or very difficult to meet.In summary, an overwhelming majority of respondents perceived the pedagogical and relational aspects of the DE program as satisfactory.However, a number of organizational aspects, such as workload, learning pace, and assignment deadlines, appeared to be more problematic, and they taxed some respondents to their limits.These problems would be largely explained by the fact that most of the students were working at the same time, and might even have a second job as well as additional responsibilities (e.g., childcare).
Nevertheless, participants who had taken an introductory course on DE found the DE experience significantly more satisfying in terms of work atmosphere and exchanges with professors and tutors.With the same ranking of aspects, participants who had opportunities to attend synchronous meetings with course instructors appeared to be more satisfied with the relational climate of the program, although they did not show significantly more satisfaction with organizational aspects.
By accounting for certain variables such as gender, age, and some organizational aspects, we were able to deepen our understanding of some of the pedagogical and technical aspects of the programs.
With respect to gender differences, the 2008-2009 and 2009-2010 data converge to indicate that women more than men consistently contacted a resource person to help resolve technical problems.However, no apparent difference emerged between men and women in terms of the technical skills required to follow a DE program.
The effect of age range is seen on the degree of satisfaction with the program.Thus, older learners (40 and up) appeared to be significantly more satisfied with the training, whereas younger learners were less satisfied, and they more frequently reported having technical problems during the program.

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It is also interesting to note that when problems arose, respondents enrolled in a southern university more frequently appealed to a tutor or another student.Moreover, they were significantly more satisfied with the workload and reported significantly fewer conflicts with other students and professors.However, they were also significantly less satisfied with the assessment and examination system than students in a northern university.This suggests that for the southern universities, the cultural proximity between students and professors facilitated relational aspects of the training and acted to intensify and enrich relationships with tutors.
Results of the qualitative analysis reveal that, generally speaking, the tutors were perceived to have played a positive role, particularly when they intervened rapidly, comprehensively, and in an individualized manner: S1: "Personally, last year, I was greatly helped by two or three of my tutors, who were sympathetic about the problems I had during my training.So I feel that the tutors did an excellent job." Of course, the tutors could not play such a positive role if they were unavailable.Therefore, participants clearly identified the unavailability of the tutors as the most serious drawback: S10: "In my case, my tutor wasn't there for me." In addition, we may conclude that the tutor's role was perceived positively overall, as long as they were available to coach the students.That said, they usually provided assistance quickly, comprehensively, and in an individualized manner.

Benefits associated with earning a DE diploma
The benefits of earning a DE diploma were investigated in the students who had completed a training program the previous year, that is, in 2008 for the 2008-2009 survey and in 2009 for the 2009-2010 survey.
Regardless of the graduation year, the benefits associated with obtaining a DE diploma were revealed as very significant, particularly in terms of feelings of professional competence (see Figure 3).Thus, in the graduating class of 2008, 75% of respondents agreed that they had greater feelings of professional competence, with over 94% agreement for the class of 2009.
Aside from feelings of professional competence, the impacts on employability and professional development were also appreciated.Thus, around 32% of graduates in 2008 and 45% in 2009 felt that the diploma contributed positively to their professional career, in the form of a promotion or the assignment of additional responsibilities.
Moreover, as shown in Figure 3, 22% of graduates in 2008 agreed that their diploma had contributed to finding a new job which corresponded better to their personal aspirations.For the 2009 graduates, this percentage was much higher, at 53%.Furthermore, about 22% and 25% of graduates in 2008 and 2009, respectively, felt that their diploma gave them opportunities to earn a higher salary.
In addition, respondents associated their diploma with other benefits, including the following: -The skills they developed through their DE program helped them find a number of solutions to problems at work (95%, for both graduating classes).
-DE was useful for their professional career (85%, for both graduating classes).
-They were satisfied with their progress in developing new competencies (92% for 2008 and 73% for 2009).
-More job opportunities were available to them (72% for 2009).
-Their diploma was recognized in their professional community (74% for 2009).
-They were satisfied with the success they had in their career (73% for 2009).
-They were satisfied with their progress in achieving career goals (74% for 2008).
The results of the qualitative analysis reveal that the benefits of the DE programs were felt mainly in terms of professional outcomes.The two main benefits corresponded point by point with participants' motivations to enroll in the program (see section on "Participants' motivations to enroll in a DE program"), which suggests that DE programs can respond adequately to learners' expectations.
The positive outcomes included: • Benefits for the development of professional competencies: S5: "In any case, it enabled me to developed competencies." • Increased employability: G2: "The profs got me involved in a lot of things, because quite simply, they felt that I had more skills, and those skills, I acquired them through those courses." Increased employability, translated concretely into job promotions: S4: "I'm still getting offers, job offers that people give me." Another benefit of DE, although less often reported, was its contribution to the development of a qualified workforce that could serve African countries: G2: "I realized that this should be an irreversible process, so African countries can improve the quality of their workforces without fear of the brain drain."

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Given the benefits it provided, participants overwhelmingly reported a highly positive view of DE: S10: "On the whole, I appreciated it.For me, it was a rewarding experience." In summary, it appears that the greatest benefits of the training were associated with feelings of professional competence, along with considerable benefits in terms of career progress, including additional skills, higher salaries, and greater professional recognition.
Furthermore, the high agreement with the item addressing willingness to continue DE training (76% for 2008 and 73% for 2009) indicates strong intentions among the graduates to acquire more qualifications.In view of the overall positive views expressed about DE in the questionnaire responses, we could assume that the training programs had a positive effect on these intentions.

Conclusion
We conclude by recalling that distance education (DE) proffers two main benefits for Africa.First, it provides a low-cost way to ease the congestion in African universities, which are struggling to accommodate excessive numbers of students in inadequate facilities.Thus, online courses can broaden the education offer without the construction of new national academic networks and institutions.Furthermore, because it does not require students to travel abroad, distance education can facilitate the reinvestment of graduates' skills into their own communities.They can thereby contribute to the development of a qualified workforce attuned to local and regional needs.However, the current state of technological development in African countries casts doubt on the possibility of fully realizing the potential of distance education at this time.
In relation to the research objectives, we underscore some overall trends in order to provide a broad overview of the training programs, and we identify certain findings that could be useful for guiding future policy decisions.
In the participants' sociological profile, we found that the three successive samples of participants who were enrolled in or had completed a DE program were fairly homogenous in terms of gender and age as well as marital, family, and sociocultural status.The same may be said in term of their jobs and years of professional experience.Consequently, there were few differences among the cohorts between students who were taking courses and graduates, aside from program progress (ongoing versus completed).There is no question that the sociological portrait that emerges was strongly influenced by the universities' selection criteria, which favored equity for women and candidates younger than 40 years old.That said, the average participant profile is a man about 35 year old on average, living and working in an urban, Frenchspeaking region of Africa, with a university degree in education at the bachelor's, master's, or doctoral level, and currently working.Accordingly, the DE programs would have been undertaken mainly in the first half of the participants' professional careers, with the purpose of continuing education beyond initial training.
With respect to the technological profile, we note first of all that the participants enrolled in a DE program in 2009-2010 appeared to be better equipped technologically than those surveyed in 2008-2009.
As mentioned above, we noted an overall improvement in the available equipment (i.e., computer and Internet access) from the first to the third study year.We also found differences in the technological profile in terms of age and professional experience.Thus, when participants' age is accounted for in the analysis of the technological profile, some interesting differences emerge, although they fluctuate with the study year.
Certain particularly discriminatory age-related factors then came to light.For instance, younger respondents had fewer problems with the computers compared to older respondents.One possible explanation for this is that younger respondents had more opportunities to practice their technology RITPU • IJTHE skills than older respondents, who were therefore less experienced in these matters, probably due to recent technological innovations at the universities and in professional and personal lives.Other noticeable age-related differences were observed in the degree of satisfaction with the relational aspects of the training, where older participants were more satisfied, and in satisfaction with the training requirements, which older participants perceived more negatively.
Aside from the job-and age-related variables, which appear to be closely associated, some interesting gender differences were uncovered, notably in technical and relational aspects.Although no appreciable difference was found between study years in men's and women's technical skills, women more frequently asked a resource person for help to resolve technical problems.
Generally speaking, the technical problems involving the DE Web platforms were most often resolved using strategies that would be considered informal: asking for help from other students, more experienced colleagues, peers, or family members.For example, one student said, "My little sister is an engineer, and she helps me too."All three surveys showed that this was a routine and frequent strategy.
The results also show that men perceived the collective aspects of DE more positively than women, who perceived it more as an individual learning mode.
These differences in appreciation of the collective versus individual aspects of DE were also seen between students in programs delivered by northern versus southern universities.Thus, respondents enrolled in a northern program had a more individualized perception of DE, whereas respondents enrolled in a southern program placed less emphasis on the role of technologies in their learning.
In terms of the benefits obtained from a DE program, the results show overwhelmingly positive perceptions by all participants.Although the graduates in year 2008 reported a certain shortfall between the benefits for their professional development and the tangible benefits for their professional advancement, the graduates of 2009 appeared to have a more positive appreciation of the tangible impacts of DE on their job status.However, we should emphasize that the benefits derived from the DE programs were not the same for all participants.
For instance, men experienced greater feelings of competence, as did respondents who had taken an OLD program delivered by a university in the South.In addition, younger and less experienced respondents reported a greater salary impact.
Finally, it is worth noting that 87% of respondents remained in their country of residence once they had obtained their diploma.The motivations to enroll in a DE program therefore appear to be more for purposes of social and professional advancement at home than for migrating to a richer country.In addition, the hope to pursue one's studies at a university in the North seems to be a secondary reason, overshadowed by motivations such as personal development and professional advancement.In light of the opinions expressed, it would seem that the decision to take a DE program over a face-to-face program comes into play only after the decision was made to advance one's professional career.
From the results reported here on three successive cohorts, comprising a total of 2,416 individuals who followed a DE program, we may reasonably conclude that the programs as delivered were perceived highly positively by the vast majority of participants, who derived considerable and diversified benefits for their personal and professional development.
In conclusion, we may add that, even though the workload and tight deadlines sometimes taxed the limits of the participants, who had to contend with jobs at the same time, the great majority retained a positive perspective of this form of education delivery, as expressed by their general satisfaction.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Motivating factors for enrolling in a DE program (2009-2010)2 We also note a strong convergence in representations of DE among the different samples across the three study years.In all cases, the first six perceptions are reported in the same order of priority, with the remainder showing only minor differences.The data presented in Figure2are for year 2009-2010.

Figure 3 .
Figure 3. Benefits associated with earning a DE diploma.