Abstracts
Abstract
Inuit have vitamin D blood levels that generally fall within the range of insufficiency, even when they live on a traditional diet of fish and game meat. Without this vitamin, bones soften and become deformed, a condition called rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults. Until recent times, however, this condition was much rarer among Inuit than among non-Inuit, even when the latter included people living near Inuit communities under similar conditions of climate and housing. This rarity was attributed to extended breastfeeding and a high-meat/low-cereal diet. The situation subsequently reversed, with Inuit becoming more at risk of developing rickets, first in Labrador during the 1920s and later elsewhere. To reduce this excess risk, researchers have recommended vitamin D supplementation, arguing that breast milk has too little vitamin D and that even a traditional diet cannot provide the recommended daily intake. We should ask, however, whether the problem is definitional. Inuit may have lower levels of vitamin D because they need less, having adapted culturally and physiologically to an environment where this vitamin is less easily synthesized in the skin. These adaptations include a diet that enhances calcium bioavailability (by means of β-casein in breast milk, certain unknown substances in meat, and absence of phytic acid), as well as genetic changes that enable vitamin D to be used more efficiently. Although Inuit are today more at risk of developing rickets than are non-Inuit, this excess risk is nonetheless small and seems to have a dietary cause—namely, early weaning and abandonment of a high-meat/low-cereal diet.
Résumé
Les Inuit affichent un taux sanguin de vitamine D se situant généralement dans la zone d’insuffisance, même lorsqu’ils mangent une alimentation traditionnelle de poisson et de gibier. Sans cette vitamine, les os se ramollissent et se déforment, condition appelée « rachitisme » pendant l’enfance et « ostéomalacie » à l’âge adulte. Cependant, jusqu’à une période récente, cette condition était beaucoup plus rare chez les Inuit que chez les non-Inuit, même lorsque ces derniers incluaient des personnes vivant tout près des communautés inuit et soumis à des conditions similaires de climat et de logement. On attribuait cette rareté à l’allaitement prolongé et à une alimentation riche en viande et pauvre en céréales. C’est par la suite que la situation s’inverse, car les Inuit deviennent plus à risque de développer le rachitisme, d’abord au Labrador pendant les années 1920 et ailleurs ensuite. Pour réduire ce sur-risque, des chercheurs recommandent une supplémentation quotidienne en vitamine D, en soutenant que le lait maternel serait trop pauvre en vitamine D et que même l’alimentation traditionnelle serait insuffisante pour fournir l’apport quotidien recommandé. Mais il faut se demander si cette carence est illusoire. Il se peut que les Inuit affichent un faible taux sanguin de vitamine D parce qu’ils en ont moins besoin, s’étant adaptés tant sur le plan culturel que sur le plan physiologique à un milieu où cette vitamine se synthétise difficilement dans la peau. Ces adaptations incluraient une alimentation qui augmente la biodisponibilité du calcium (grâce à la β-caséine du lait maternel, à certaines substances inconnues dans la viande et à l’absence d’acide phytique), ainsi que des modifications génétiques permettant une meilleure utilisation de la vitamine D. Si, de nos jours, les Inuit sont plus à risque de développer le rachitisme que les non-Inuit, ce sur-risque est néanmoins faible et semble avoir une cause alimentaire, à savoir le sevrage précoce et l’abandon d’une alimentation riche en viande et pauvre en céréales.
Appendices
References
- ANDERSEN, K. Lange, J. S. HART, H. T. HAMMEL, and H. B. SABEAN, 1963 “Metabolic and Thermal Response of Eskimos During Muscular Exertion in the Cold”, Journal of Applied Physiology, 18 (3): 613-618.
- ANDERSEN, Stig, Peter LAURBERG, Bodil HVINGEL, Kent KLEINSCHMIDT, Lene HEICKENDORFF, and Leif MOSEKILDE, 2013 “Vitamin D Status in Greenland Is Influenced by Diet and Ethnicity: A Population-Based Survey in an Arctic Society in Transition”, British Journal of Nutrition, 109: 928-935.
- APPLETON, V.B., 1921 “Observations on Deficiency Diseases in Labrado”r, The American Journal of Public Health, 11 (7): 617-621.
- BETTI, Lia, Stephen J. LYCETT, Noreen VON CRAMON-TAUBADEL, and Osbjorn M. PEARSON, 2015 “Are Human Hands and Feet Affected by Climate? A Test of Allen’s Rule”, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 158 (1): 132-140.
- BISCHOFF-FERRARI, Heike A., 2014 “Optimal Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Levels for Multiple Health Outcomes”, Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 624: 55-71.
- BLANCHET, C., E. DEWAILLY, P. AYOTTE, S. BRUNEAU, O. RECEVEUR, and B. J. HOLUB, 2000 “Contribution of Selected Traditional and Market Foods to the Diet of Nunavik Inuit Women”, Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research, 61 (2): 50-59.
- BRUNBORG, Linn Anne, Kåre JULSHAMN, Ragnar NORTVEDT, and Livar FRØYLAND, 2006 “Nutritional Composition of Blubber and Meat of Hooded Seal (Cystophora cristata) and Harp Seal (Phagophilus groenlandicus) from Greenland”, Food Chemistry, 96 (4): 524-531.
- CBC NEWS, 2010 “Northerners Lack Vitamin D Intake: Official”, CBC News North, December 3, www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/northerners-lack-vitamin-d-intake-official-1.871384
- CRAIG, Wallace, and Morris BELKIN, 1925 “The Prevention and Cure of Rickets”, The Scientific Monthly, 20 (5): 541-550.
- DABBS, Gretchen R., 2011 “Health Status among Prehistoric Eskimos from Point Hope, Alaska”, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 146 (1): 94-103.
- DAVIS, Cindy D., 2009 “Vitamin D and Health: Can too Much Be Harmful?”, American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 3 (5): 407-408.
- DELUCA, Hector F., 1978 The Fat-Soluble Solutions. New York, Plenum Press.
- DRAPER, H.H., 1977 “The Aboriginal Eskimo Diet in Modern Perspective”, American Anthropologist, 79 (2): 309-316.
- DUNNIGAN, Matthew G., Janet B. HENDERSON, David J. HOLE, E. Barbara MAWER, and Jaqueline L. BERRY, 2005 “Meat Consumption Reduces the Risk of Nutritional Rickets and O”, British Journal of Nutrition, 94 (6): 983-991.
- DURUP, Darshana, Henrik Løvendahl JØRGENSEN, Jane CHRISTENSEN, Peter SCHWARZ, Anne-Marie HEEGAARD, and Bent LIND, 2012 “A Reverse J-Shaped Association of All-Cause Mortality with Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D in General Practice: The CopD Study”, The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 97 (8): 2644-2652.
- DURUP, Darshana, Henrik Løvendahl JØRGENSEN, Jane CHRISTENSEN, Anne TJØNNELAND, Anja OLSEN, Jytte HALKJAER, Bent LIND, Anne-Marie HEEGAARD and Peter SCHWARZ, 2015 “A Reverse J-Shaped Association between Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D and Cardiovascular Disease Mortality: The CopD Study”, The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 100 (6): 2339-2346.
- EL HAYEK, Jessy, 2011 Correlates of Vitamin D Status in Inuit Preschoolers and Adults and Correlates of Bone Mineral Density in Inuit Preschoolers. PhD dissertation. Montreal, McGill University.
- FOSTER, Frederick and Mark COLLARD, 2013 “A Reassessment of Bergmann’s Rule in Modern Humans”, PLoS ONE, 8 (8): e72269.
- FROST, Peter, 2012 “Vitamin D Deficiency among Northern Native Peoples: A Real or Apparent Problem?”, International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 71: 18001. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3402/ijch.v71i0.18643
- FUMAGALLI, Matteo, Ida MOLTKE, Niels GRARUP, Fernando RACIMO, Peter BJERREGAARD, Marit E. JØRGENSEN, and Rasmus NIELSEN, 2015 “Greenlandic Inuit Show Genetic Signatures of Diet and Climate Adaptation”, Science, 349 (6254): 1343-1347.
- GODEL, John C., 2007 “Vitamin D Supplementation: Recommendations for Canadian Mothers and Infants”, Paediatrics and Child Health, 12 (7): 583-589.
- GOVERNMENT OF NUNAVUT, 2017 Healthy Living - Vitamin D. Iqaluit, Nunavut Department of Health. www.livehealthy.gov.nu.ca/en/healthy-eating/babies/vitamin-d
- GOVERNMENT OF YUKON, 2017 Vitamin D – Yukoners Need Vitamin D at Every Stage of Life, Year Round. Learn More about Vitamin D and See if You’re Getting What You Need. Yellowknife, Yukon Health and Social Services. http://www.hss.gov.yk.ca/vitamind.php
- HAGENAU, T., R. VEST, T.N. GISSEL, C.S. POULSEN, M. ERLANDSEN, L. MOSEKILDE, and P. VESTERGAARD, 2009 “Global Vitamin D Levels in Relation to Age, Gender, Skin Pigmentation and Latitude: An Ecologic Meta-Regression Analysis”, Osteoporosis International, 20: 133-140.
- HANRAHAN, Maura, 2008 “Tracing Social Change among the Labrador Inuit and Inuit-Métis: What Does the Nutrition Literature Tell Us?”, Food Culture and Society: An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 11 (3): 316-333.
- HARRISON, Douglas Crees, and Edward MELLANBY, 1939 “Phytic Acid and the Rickets-Producing Action of Cereals”, Biochemical Journal, 33 (10):1660-1680.
- HAWORTH, J.C., and L.A. DILLING, 1986 “Vitamin-D-Deficient Rickets in Manitoba, 1972-84”, Canadian Medical Association Journal, 134 (3): 237-241.
- HELZLSOUER, Kathy J., and STEERING COMMITTEE OF VITAMIN D POOLING PROJECT OF RARER CANCERS, 2010 “Vitamin D: Panacea or a Pandora’s Box For Prevention?”, Cancer Prevention Research, 3 (1 Suppl 1): PL04-05.
- HOFFECKER, John F., and Scott A. ELIAS, 2007 Human Ecology of Beringia. New York, Columbia University Press.
- HOLICK, Michael F., 1985 “The Photobiology of Vitamin D and its Consequences for Humans”, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 453: 1-13.
- HØYGAARD, Arne, 1941 Studier over ernaering og fysiopatologi hos eskimoene. PhD dissertation. Oslo, University of Oslo.
- JABLONSKI, Nina G., and George CHAPLIN, 2000 “The Evolution of Human Skin Coloration”, Journal of Human Evolution, 39 (1): 57-106.
- KARPPINEN, Toni, Meri ALA-HOUHALA, Lasse YLIANTTILA, Hannu KAUTIAINEN, Kaisa LAKKALA, Henna-Reeta HANNULA, and Erna SNELLMAN, 2017 “The Effect of Vernal Solar UV Radiation on Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Concentration Depends on the Baseline Level: Observations from a High Latitude in Finland”, International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 76: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/22423982.2016.1272790
- KOLAHDOOZ, Fariba, Alison BARR, Cindy ROACHE, Tony SHEEHY, Andre CORRIVEAU, and Sangita SHARMA, 2013 “Dietary Adequacy of Vitamin D and Calcium among Inuit and Inuvialuit Women of Child-Bearing Age in Arctic Canada: A Growing Concern”, PLoS One, 8 (11): https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0078987
- KUHNLEIN, H.V., O. RECEVEUR, R. SOUEIDA, and G.M. EGELAND, 2004 “Peoples Experience the Nutrition Transition with Changing Dietary Patterns and Obesity”, The Journal of Nutrition, 134 (6): 1447-1453.
- LALAND, Kevin N., John ODLING-SMEE, and Sean MYLES, 2010 “How Culture Shaped the Human Genome: Bringing Genetics and the Human Sciences Together”, Nature Reviews Genetics, 11 (2): 137-148.
- LAZENBY, Richard, and Amanda SMASHNUK, 1999 “Osteometric Variation in the Inuit Second Metacarpal: A Test of Allen’s Rule”, International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 9 (3): 182-188.
- LEMAS, Dominick J., Howard W. WEINER, Diane M. O’BRIEN, Scarlett HOPKINS, Kimber L. STANHOPE, Peter J. HAVEL, David B. ALLISON, Jose R. FERNANDEZ, Hemant K. TIWARI, and Bert B. BOYER, 2012 “Genetic Polymorphisms in carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A Gene Are Associated with Variation in Body Composition and Fasting Lipid Traits in Yup’ik Eskimos”, Journal of Lipid Research, 53: 175-184.
- LEONARD, William R., Mark V. SORENSEN, Victoria A. GALLOWAY, Gary J. SPENCER, M.J. MOSHER, Ludmilla OSIPOVA, and Victor A. SPITSYN, 2002 “Climatic Influences on Basal Metabolic Rates among Circumpolar Populations”, American Journal of Human Biology, 14 (5): 609-620.
- LIVINGSTONE, S.D., J. GRAYSON, L.D. REED, and D. GORDON, 1978 “Effect of a Local Cold Stress on Peripheral Temperatures of Inuit, Oriental, and Caucasian Subjects”, Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 56 (5): 877-881.
- LÖNNERDAL, Bo, 2003 “Nutritional and Physiologic Significance of Human Milk Proteins”, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 77 (6): 1537S-1543S.
- MCCANCE, R.A., and E.M. WIDDOWSON, 1942a “Mineral Metabolism of Healthy Adults on White and Brown Bread Dietaries”, The Journal of Physiology, 101 (1): 44-85.
- MCCANCE, R.A., and E.M. WIDDOWSON, 1942b “Mineral Metabolism on Dephytinized Bread”, The Journal of Physiology, 101 (3): 304-313.
- MCISAAC, Kathryn E., Wendy LOU, Daniel SELLEN, and T. Kue YOUNG, 2014 “Exclusive Breastfeeding among Canadian Inuit: Results from the Nunavut Inuit Child Health Survey”, Journal of Human Lactation, 30 (2): 229-241.
- MICHAËLSSON, Karl, John A. BARON, Greta SNELLMAN, Rolf GEDEBORG, Liisa BYBERG, Johan SUNDSTRÖM, and Håkan MELHUS, 2010 “Plasma Vitamin D and Mortality in Older Men: A Community-Based Prospective Cohort Study”, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 92 (4): 841-848.
- NIELSEN, Nina O., Peter BJERREGAARD, Pernille F. RØNN, Henrik FRIIS, Stig ANDERSEN, Mads MELBYE, and Marit E. JØRGENSEN, 2016 “Associations between Vitamin D Status and Type 2 Diabetes Measures among Inuit in Greenland May Be Affected by Other Factors. PLoS ONE, 11 (4). https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0152763
- PEDERSEN, P.O., 1947 “Dental Investigations of Greenland Eskimos”, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 40 (12): 726-732.
- PERRY, Horace M., Marie BERNARD, Michael HOROWITZ, Douglas K. MILLER, Shantiel FLEMING, Mary Zoe BAKER, and John E. MORLEY, 1998 “The Effect of Aging on Bone Mineral Metabolism and Bone Mass in Native American Women”, Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 46 (11): 1418–1422.
- RABINOWITCH, I.M., 1936 “Clinical and Other Observations on Canadian Eskimos in the Eastern Arctic”, The Canadian Medical Association Journal, 34 (5): 487-501.
- REJNMARK, L., M.E. JØRGENSEN, M.B. PEDERSEN, J.C. HANSEN, L. HEICKENDORFF, A.L. LAURIDSEN, and L. MOSEKILDE, 2004 “Vitamin D Insufficiency in Greenlanders on a Westernized Fare: Ethnic Differences in Calcitropic Hormones between Greenlanders and Danes”, Calcified Tissue International, 74 (3): 255–263.
- ROSS, A. Catharine, Christine L. TAYLOR, Ann L. YAKTINE, and Heather B. DEL VALLE, 2011 Dietary Reference Intakes – Calcium, Vitamin D, Institute of Medicine, The National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
- SCHEHK, E., 1936 Untersuchungen über die Rachitishaufigkeit bei Lapplandern, Munchener Medizinische Wochenschrift, 88: 1395-1396.
- SELLERS, Elizabeth A.C., Atul SHARMA, and Celia RODD, 2003 “Adaptation of Inuit Children to a Low-Calcium Diet”, Canadian Medical Association Journal, 168 (9): 1141–1143.
- SHEA, Brian T., 1977 “Eskimo Craniofacial Morphology, Cold Stress and the Maxillary Sinus”, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 47 (2): 289-300.
- SHROFF, Rukshana, Craig KNOTT and Lesley REES, 2010 “The Virtues of Vitamin D: But How Much Is Too Much?”, Pediatric Nephrology, 25 (9): 1607-1620.
- SINCLAIR, H.M., 1953 “The Diet of Canadian Indians and Eskimos”, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 12: 69-82.
- SINGLETON, Rosalyn, Rachel LESCHER, Bradford D. GESSNER, Matthew BENSON, Lisa BULKOW, John ROSENFELD, and James TIESINGA, 2015 “Rickets and Vitamin D Deficiency in Alaska Native Children”, Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology and Metabolism, 28: 815-823.
- SMITH, Jessica D., Katherine CIANFLONE, Eric DEWAILLY, Marie-Ludivine CHÂTEAU-DEGAT, Marie-Claude VOHL, and Pierre JULIEN, 2009 “Acylation Stimulating Protein Is Higher in Inuit from Nunavik Compared to a Southern Quebec Population”, International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 68 (5): 421-432.
- STEWART, W.K., R.G. MITCHELL, H.G. MORGAN, K.G. LOWE, and J. THOMSON, 1964 “The Changing Incidence of Rickets and Infantile Hypercalcaemia as Seen in Dundee”, The Lancet, 283 (7335): 679-730.
- STOLZENBERG-SOLOMON, Rachael Z., Eric J. JACOBS, Alan A. ARSLAN, Dai QI, Alpa V. PATEL, Kathy J. HELZLSOUER, and Laurence N. KOLONEL, 2010 “Circulating 25-Hydroxyvitamin D and Risk of Pancreatic Cancer, Cohort Consortium Vitamin D Pooling Project of Rarer Cancers”, American Journal of Epidemiology, 172 (1): 81-93.
- STREYM, Susanna V., Carsten S. HØJSKOV, Ulla Kristine MØLLER, Lene HEICKENDORFF, Peter VESTERGAARD, Leif MOSEKILDE, and Lars REJNMARK, 2016 ”Vitamin D Content in Human Breast Milk: A 9-mo Follow-Up Study’, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 103 (1): 107-114.
- THOMAS, William A., 1927 “Health of a Carnivorous Race. A Study of the Eskimo”, Journal of the American Medical Association, 88 (20): 1559-1560.
- TSE, Sze Man, Hope WEILER, and Tom KOVESI, 2016 “Food Insecurity, Vitamin D Insufficiency and Respiratory Infections among Inuit Children”, International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 75: 29954. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3402/ijch.v75.29954
- TUOHIMAA, Pentti, 2009 “Vitamin D and Aging”, The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 114 (1-2): 78-84.
- TUOHIMAA, Pentti, T. KEISALA, A. MINASYAN, J. CACHAT, and A. KALUEFF, 2009 “Vitamin D, Nervous System and Aging”, Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34S: S278-286.
- WAITERS, B., John C. GODEL, and Tapan K. BASU, 1999 “Perinatal Vitamin D and Calcium Status of Northern Canadian Mothers and their Newborn Infants”, Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 18 (2): 122-126.
- WARD, Leanne M., Isabelle GABOURY, Moyez LADHANI, and Stanley ZLOTKIN, 2007 “Vitamin D-Deficiency Rickets among Children in Canada”, Canadian Medical Association Journal, 177 (2) : 161-166.
- WEILER, Hope A., William D. LESLIE, John KRAHN, Pauline Wood STEIMAN, and Colleen J. METGE, 2007 “Canadian Aboriginal Women Have a Higher Prevalence of Vitamin D Deficiency than Non-Aboriginal Women Despite Similar Dietary Vitamin D Intakes”, Journal of Nutrition, 137 (2) : 461–465.
- WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO), 2018a Vitamin D supplementation and respiratory infections in children. World Health Organization. e-Library of Evidence for Nutrition Actions (eLENA). www.who.int/elena/titles/vitamind_pneumonia_children/en/
- WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO), 2018b Vitamin D Supplementation during Pregnancy. World Health Organization. e-Library of Evidence for Nutrition Actions (eLENA). www.who.int/elena/titles/vitamind_supp_pregnancy/en/
- WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO), 2018c Vitamin D Supplementation in Infants. World Health Organization. e-Library of Evidence for Nutrition Actions (eLENA). www.who.int/elena/titles/vitamind_infants/en/
- YEATS, Sarah M., 2011 From Limb to Limb : An Analysis of Postcranial Measurements in Prehistoric and Protohistoric Inuit Populations from Golovnin Bay and Nunivak Island, Alaska, Master’s thesis. Reno, University of Nevada.
- YOUNG, T. Kue, 1996 “Obesity, Central Fat Patterning, and their Metabolic Correlates among the Inuit of the Central Canadian Arctic, Human Biology, 68 (2) : 245-263.