McGill University Thèses et mémoires publiés en 2002

C. elegans worms with mutations in the gene CLK-1 develop slowly and have an extended lifespan. CLK-1 encodes a mitochondrial protein that is responsible for the hydroxylation of 5-demethoxyubiquinone (DMQ), the penultimate step of ubiquinone (Coenzyme-Q or UQ) biosynthesis. Structural homologues of CLK-1 are found in mammals, fruit flies, yeast and some types of bacteria. Interestingly, however, there is no structural homologue of CLK-1 in the Arabidopsis genome and no plant homologue can be found in other sequence databases. Yeast with the CLK-1 homologue COQ7 deleted fail to grow on non-fermentable carbon sources. To identify a plant functional homologue of …  Lire la suite

Our brain is involved in processing pain, whether it is superficial cutaneous pain, caused by a scratch or a burn, or deep internal pain, caused by heartburn or gas in the intestines. Moreover, activation of a common cortical network is suggested during different types of pain in humans, implying that as long as the stimulus is painful it will be processed similarly in the cerebral cortex. However, no one has yet made direct comparison between superficial and deep pain of similar intensity and location; direct comparison is necessary in order to see how superficial pain relates to a more clinically …  Lire la suite

The quality of studies in meta-analysis can vary widely. This variation is usually described by assigning quality scores to studies. A natural way to incorporate quality scores into an analysis is to weight each study by its quality score in addition to its size or inverse of the variance of the estimate for that study. This method has been used by several authors but has been criticized due to its subjectivity. To improve on this and other existing approaches, Tritchler (1999) introduced a probability model for assessing the effect of quality on a summary effect measure. He derived a number …  Lire la suite

The human bifunctional dehydrogenase/cyclohydrolase domain catalyzes the interconversion of 5,10-methyleneH4folate and 10-formylH 4folate. Although previous structure and mutagenesis studies indicated the importance of lysine56 in cyclohydrolase catalysis, the role of several surrounding residues had not been explored. In addition to further defining the role of lysine56, the work presented in this thesis explores the functions of glutamine100 and aspartate125 through the use of site-directed mutagenesis and chemical modification. The results indicate that the function of glutamine100 is to polarize lysine56 for cyclohydrolase catalysis, and that of aspartate125 is for the binding of the H4folate substrates. In highlighting the importance of …  Lire la suite

The question of how to best organize the governance structure of corporations in order to reconcile the various interests involved in a corporation has a long history. Legal and economic scholars from around the world have debated the issue since 1937, the year economists Adolf A. Berle and Gardener C. Means identified the agency cost problem inherent in the structure of the modern corporation (i.e. the separation of control from ownership rights). Nowadays this debate has gained an added dimension. The consequences of the increasing globalization of economies raise the question as to whether this will also lead to the …  Lire la suite

Mitchell, Claudia (Supervisor)  Lire la suite

Na+/H+ exchangers (NHE) are transmembrane proteins that mediate the electroneutral exchange of Na+ and proton across the plasma membrane. There are seven mammalian isoforms of the gene family identified to date. The recently cloned isoform NHE5 seems to be the most highly cell type-specific being probably expressed only in neurons. The objective of my research was to describe the basic biochemical and some of the regulatory characteristics of NHE5 in an effort to understand its in vivo function. To this end, the full-length cDNA of NHE5 was reconstructed and transfected into the NHE-deficient Chinese hamster ovary cell line AP1. Pharmacological …  Lire la suite

The adenoviral Early Region 4 open reading frame 4 (E4orf4) protein has been shown to induce p53-independent apoptosis in transformed human cell lines. In rodent cells, E4orf4 has been shown to mediate apoptosis in the presence of a caspase inhibitor. These early results suggested that E4orf4 triggers a novel, non-classical form of apoptosis that may be independent of the core death machinery. A series of experiments were performed to analyze the activation of apoptotic machinery in response to the expression of E4orf4 in human cell lines. The analysis of E4orf4-induced cell death focused on a detailed examination of molecular mechanisms …  Lire la suite

Searching for information pervades a wide spectrum of human activity, including learning and problem solving. With recent changes in the amount of information available and the variety of means of retrieval, there is even more need to understand why some searchers are more successful than others. This study was undertaken to advance our understanding of expertise in seeking information on the Web by identifying strategies and attributes that will increase the chance of a successful search on the Web. A model that illustrated the relationship between strategies and attributes and a successful search was also created. The strategies were: Evaluation, …  Lire la suite

Gunjal, Kisan (Supervisor)  Lire la suite

Background. Peripheral vein infusion thrombophlebitis (PVIT) is a complication of intravenous therapy. We hypothesized that inherited thrombophilia may increase the risk of PVIT. Purpose. In preparation for a multi-center study of our hypothesis, we conducted a pilot study to estimate PVIT incidence, measure the prevalence of inherited thrombophilia, and pilot test the study procedures. Methods. A prospective case-control study of 25 cases (patients with PVIT) matched on catheter duration to 25 controls. PVIT risk factors and inherited thrombophilia were assessed. Results. PVIT incidence was 14 per 1000 catheter-days. There were no significant differences in the prevalence of the inherited thrombophilia …  Lire la suite

The removal of multiple substrates in a defined mixed culture process was investigated in the treatment of brewery wastewater. The study was conducted using both batch and a semi-continuous reactor system called self-cycling fermentation. Batch experiments were conducted using a synthetic brewery wastewater containing glucose, ethanol and maltose. Activated sludge from a municipal wastewater treatment plant was acclimatized in the synthetic brewery wastewater. The microbes capable of degrading this wastewater were analyzed by a combination of microscopy, spread plating, and Polymerase Chain Reaction-Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) and identified as Acinetobacter sp., Enterobacter sp. and Candida sp. From the pure …  Lire la suite

Epureanu, B. I. (Supervisor)  Lire la suite

When a detonation propagates in an explosive that partially fills a channel, a shock wave can be generated in the air gap between the explosive and its confinement. This is typically referred to as the channel effect. In the air gap, the detonation products behave as a piston, which drives the precursor air shock wave ahead of the detonation. Since the shock wave runs ahead of the detonation, it preconditions the explosive and the detonation propagates into shocked explosive. This can affect the detonation in various ways, depending on the nature of the explosive. Properties such as heterogeneity, porosity and …  Lire la suite

The objectives of this thesis were (1) to identify older women's health priorities for promoting physical, psychological and social well-being; and (2) to measure the extent to which women perceive that their health priorities are being met. A qualitative methodology using 3 focus group sessions with 36 community-dwelling women aged 65 year and older was used to elicit older women's health priorities. Priorities were categorized into three groups: disease-related priorities, disability-related priorities, and psychosocial-related priorities. A questionnaire was developed to quantify the extent to which women perceive that these different priorities are being addressed. The survey was administered to a …  Lire la suite

This thesis is a theoretical and practical investigation of the role played by informal learning and teaching in the development of identity and applied knowledge. With the advent of mass schooling, there came to be a distinction between formal and informal education, with formal schooling representing the superiority of abstract, decontextualized, and rule-based learning over the informal, or the concrete, situated, and supposedly unstructured learning from everyday life. Research and theory in anthropology, sociocultural psychology and progressive educational philosophy have challenged this distinction, explicitly demonstrating the dialectical relationship between the formal and informal modes of all activity, regardless of setting. …  Lire la suite

During processing, polymers are exposed to complex thermal and deformation fields. Under these conditions, partially crystalline polymers undergo crystallization, which contributes significantly to their ultimate properties. While the thermal effects on polymer crystallization have been studied extensively, there is much less research carried out with regard to the effects of deformation and stress on crystallization kinetics. This is in part due to experimental difficulties in making appropriate measurements. In the present work, the Linkam Shearing Cell, in conjunction with a polarized light microscope, was used to study the effect of shear on the growth kinetics of various linear low-density polyethylene …  Lire la suite

This thesis analyses selected paintings and aspects of life of the Italian Renaissance in terms of the aesthetic properties of sadistic and masochistic symptomatologies and creative production, as these have been explored by philosophers such as Michel Foucault, Roland Barthes, Marcel Henaff, and Gilles Deleuze. One question which arises from this analysis, and is considered in this thesis, is of the relation between sexual perversion and history, and in particular between experiences of violence, (dis)pleasure and desire, and historically specific forms of discourse and power, such as legislation on rape; myths and practices concerning marriage alliance; the depiction of such …  Lire la suite

This is a study of educational change that was carried out at the School of Education (SOE) of the University of Cape Town's (UCT) in July 1998. It is about institutional and human transformation in South African higher education in 1998. The context of this inquiry is situated in South African society and polity from the start of the Apartheid era in the late nineteenth century colonization by the Britain, through the 1948 period of minority Afrikaner nationalist government, and to the time of the historic democratic election in 1994. It deals with postapartheid policies aimed at eliminating apartheid in …  Lire la suite

Bergeron, John (Supervisor)  Lire la suite

Five "critical" utopias by Quebec women writers ( L'Euguelionne and Le pique-nique sur l'Acropole by Louky Bersianik; Le silence de la Cite and Chroniques du Pays des Meres by Elisabeth Vonarburg and L'Espace du diamant by Esther Rochon) make up the corpus of this thesis which aims to explore how the three novelists exploit the possibilities of this particular form of contemporary utopian writing. For these authors, the transformation of society depends upon the transformation of the individual. We therefore propose to examine the ways in which Bersianik, Vonarburg and Rochon represent, through the experiences of their characters, the social …  Lire la suite

"La xénogreffe du foie pourrait éliminer la pénurie d'organes à transplanter, mais actuellement ce n'est pas possible en raison d'un manque de compréhension du rejet du xénogreffon du foie Le rejet suraigu du xenogreffon est lancé en liant les anticorps xénoreactifs préformés (XNA) aux cellules endothéliales du xénogreffon. Les liens du XNA aux cellules endothéliales du xénogreffon mène aux dommages endothéliaux assistés par le complément. Au début la xénogreffe du foie sera offert aux patients en insuffisance aiguë du foie comme passerelle à une transplantation humaine du foie L'hypothèse évaluée dans cette thèse est que le rejet suraigu des xénogreffons …  Lire la suite

The aim of this dissertation is to explain the meaning of concordia surveying the historical context in which it emerged. The thesis concentrates on the period 63--43 B.C. because it is in this crucial period that the concept achieves its most articulate and influential defence by the Roman orator, statesman, and philosopher, Marcus Tullius Cicero. My intention is to review the important writings and speeches of Cicero and to situate them in the political struggles in which he was implicated. By placing the concept of concordia in this political context, a clearer picture emerges than is available in the current …  Lire la suite

Methods of structural optimization have been studied and developed over the last three decades. An important aspect of structural optimization pertains to the conditions under which the loads are applied. Problems in which the applied load is single and deterministic are well documented in the literature, whereas those in which the load is deterministic but varying, stochastic, or uncertain have been less studied. Although methods of structural optimization under single-loading conditions can be extended to multiple-loading cases, the computational burden imposed by these methods is often extremely high, to the point of becoming inapplicable. In this thesis, a novel approach …  Lire la suite

The literature in education is conspicuously lacking in any meaningful or sustained discussion of the body's role in education. This thesis suggests that body and mind do not mutually exclude one another but rather, they are the two aspects that, together, form the whole person. Paradox is a key concept here because it offers a vision of reality that brings together "apparent opposites" into a tensed relationship thereby creating a framework that allows for the integration of body and mind into a cohesive whole. This thesis argues that myth is an expression of humankind's paradoxical nature, and that the hero …  Lire la suite

This dissertation is presented in the form of three essays on International Business studies. The purpose of the dissertation is to address the interdependence between the macroeconomy and finance at three levels of analysis: the conceptual level, the economic policy level, and the corporate policy level. Each essay addresses one of these levels. The empirical focus is on developing countries in general---and Latin America in particular---because in recent history these countries have experienced large economic fluctuations and major regime shifts. The introduction surveys the literature on the relationship between the financial sector and economic growth. The first essay synthesizes the …  Lire la suite

For the purposes of this thesis, I can say that the educational work that I have addressed represents 'informal education' in that it is oriented towards transforming gendered power relations and shares the basic methodological principle building analytically and practically upon, the experiential knowledge of the learners themselves. The discussion is based on a detailed study of informal and incidental learning that takes place in Baltistan. Research presented in this thesis seeks to show that with women acting as men's equals rather than as mere auxiliaries, greater victories in the fight against poverty and deprivation may be won. Rather than …  Lire la suite

Phosphorylation of protein kinase Cs (PKCs) by phosphoinositide-dependent kinase I (PDK) is critical for PKC activity. In the nervous system of the marine mollusk Aplysia, there are only two major PKC isoforms, the calcium-activated PKC Apl I and the calcium-independent PKC Apl II, and both PKCs are persistently activated during intermediate memory. We monitored the PDK-dependent phosphorylation of PKC Apl I and PKC Apl II using phosphopeptide antibodies. PDK phosphorylation of PKCs was not sensitive to inhibitors of PI-3 kinase, PKC, nor to expression of a kinase-inactive PDK. Phosphorylation of a kinase inactive PKC was reduced, likely due to dephosphorylation. …  Lire la suite

This dissertation tries to study the reign of al-Qadir billah, the `Abbasid caliph who assumed power in 381/991. It deals with political, economic and religious aspects of his reign in an attempt to give a balanced description of his achievement. When al-Qadir was appointed caliph the `Abbasid caliphate had already declined politically and economically. The political decline was caused mainly by the soldiers' intervention in politics since the reign of al-Mutawakkil (232/847--247/851) onwards and the take over of the state administration and military control by the amir al-umara. The economic decline resulted from two important factors: first, it was caused …  Lire la suite

Many multi-channel free-space micro-optical components such as micro-mirror switches and (tunable) vertical-cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs) are arranged in two-dimensional arrays. This thesis explores the design, implementation and characterization of a two-dimensional optical wavelength (de)multiplexer designed to interface between wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) optical networks and 2D micro-mirror optical switch, VCSEL or detector arrays. The system uses multifacet gratings to map the light from a traditional optical (de)multiplexer to a 4 x 16 array with a pitch of 250 mum. The device is 6.05 mm in length and could be fabricated by plastic injection molding. The device successfully performs the …  Lire la suite

Transgenic mice lacking RPTPsigma, a type IIa receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase, exhibit severe neural-developmental deficits. Continued expression of RPTPsigma in the adult suggests that it plays a functional role in the mature nervous system. To determine if RPTPsigma might influence axonal regeneration, the time course of regeneration following facial nerve crush in wild type and RPTPsigma (-/-) mice was compared. Mice lacking RPTPsigma exhibited an accelerated rate of functional recovery, suggesting that RPTPsigma slows the extension of regenerating axons. We detected a decrease in RPTPsigma expression by facial motoneurons following nerve crush in wild type mice. Consistent with this, we …  Lire la suite

Studies of the Early Meiji Period have until now been mainly articulated around the issue of continuity and discontinuity between the Edo and Meiji eras. Thus Tokyo has become the central locus of production of multiple discourses on Japanese modernity, urbanity and culture. This work adopts a discontinuist approach by considering each era as two entirely distinct, although related, historical assemblages. For this, I focus my study on the conditions of production of Tokyo as a modern urban space. The entry into modernity is the crossing of a threshold. As Edo is marked by the order of the general equivalent …  Lire la suite

Cairns, Robert D. (Supervisor)  Lire la suite

The Alfred Bog wetland is the largest high quality bog ecosystem and one of the most important natural areas in southern Ontario. The 4,200 hectare bog provides habitat to a large number of rare and endangered species and plays an integral role as a natural water filter. This study used the contingent valuation survey method to estimate respondents' willingness to pay for the preservation of the Alfred Bog wetland, which is threatened by the competing activities of drainage, burning, and the extraction of peat. A multiple bounded discrete choice model was used to analyze the survey results. Results indicated that …  Lire la suite

During the Italian Renaissance, artists and anatomists compared man to various mechanical devices, in an attempt to uncover knowledge about the structure and processes of the human body. In so doing, they drew on ancient Greek notions of instrumentality and proportion. During the early Scientific Revolution, the metaphor of Man the machine played a key role in the development of mechanistic philosophy. During the Enlightenment, it served views on materialism and atheism. By the nineteenth century, when the Industrial Revolution was in full swing, a fundamental change in the relationship of man to machine had come about. Whereas, for Protagoras, …  Lire la suite

The thesis examines the work of the media in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the post-war period and efforts to restructure its institutions and change journalistic practices. The main focus is placed the effort of the Organization of Security and Cooperation in Europe to facilitate "free and fair elections" in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the creation of the Media Experts Commission, which was to regulate the work of the media during this period. The difficulty that this Commission met during its work pointed to inadequacy of its mandate, as well as complexity of the issue of media transformation. The case of …  Lire la suite

This study examines the emotional responses of adoption reunion participants over time by a cross-sectional survey. A questionnaire was modeled after an existing reunion guideline, "Relationship Stages in Reunion". Ontario adoption reunion counselors in the public and private sectors use this guideline. This questionnaire was circulated by a Parent Finder's organization (22 respondents), and a provincial government organization (27 respondents). The hypothesis that there is a predictable pattern of emotional response in reunion was not supported. No significant differences were found between those that experienced reunion via either organization. There were some differences in the demographics. Both groups noted a …  Lire la suite

Thermal kinetics of enzymatic time-temperature integrators (TTIs) were experimentally evaluated under both conventional and microwave heating systems in the pasteurization temperature range (50 to 90°C). Recent developments of process evaluation methodologies have Shown that standardized enzymatic time-temperature integrators (TTIs) could be successfully used for fast and correct quantification of thermal processes. Promising results have been reported for the alpha-amylase based TTI from Bacillus subtilis (BAA), which was chosen in this study as the TTI to compare the effectiveness of continuous-flow heating systems with microwave and conventional heating modes. Thermal inactivation kinetics of alpha-amylase was studied by measuring the residual activity …  Lire la suite

It is well known that the rheological characterization of a polymer melt requires measurement not only of the shear flow properties but also of the extensional flow properties. In the past, extensional flow measurements were not routinely performed because of the difficulties involved in extensional experiments. However, recent innovations have made it easier to study polymers under extensional flow and obtain reliable data. The objective of this research was to characterize polymers with respect to their extensional behavior and failure mechanism. Specifically, long-chain branched polyethylenes produced using constrained geometry catalysts were studied. The research was performed using a Munstedt rheometer, …  Lire la suite

Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) synthesizes 5-methyltetrahydrofolate, a methyl donor for conversion of homocysteine to methionine. A common thermolabile variant causes mild MTHFR deficiency, induces mild hyperhomocysteinemia when plasma folate levels are low and increases risk for neural tube defects (NTD) and pregnancy loss. To increase our understanding of Mthfr regulation, the 5' and 3' regions of the mouse cDNA and gene were characterized. These studies revealed two major promoters, an internal coding exon in the 5'UTR, alternative transcriptional and translational start sites and alternative splicing and polyadenylation. These data suggest that Mthfr regulation is likely to be complex. To investigate the …  Lire la suite

Class I alpha1,2-mannosidases (glycosylhydrolase family 47) form the Man5GlcNAc2 substrate for the synthesis of complex and hybrid N-glycans that are absolutely required for mammalian development. A human alpha1,2-mannosidase cDNA encoding endoplasmic reticulum alpha1,2-mannosidase I was characterized. This enzyme hydrolyses the terminal middle arm alpha1,2-linked mannose residue of Man9GlcNAc2, thus forming Man 8GlcNAc2 isomer B. It has been implicated in targeting misfolded glycoproteins for degradation. Furthermore, two novel human Golgi alpha1,2-mannosidase cDNAs, IB and IC, encoding distinct activities that trim Man9-8GlcNAc2 to Man5GlcNAc2 were characterized. The Golgi alpha1,2-mannosidases do not form Man8GlcNAc2 isomer B and are thus complementary to the endoplasmic …  Lire la suite

In this thesis, we add a new vectorial particle to the standard model, a new particle that has the special property of having a vacuum state breaking Lorentz invariance and, therefore, CPT invariance. At the level of energy of the world we live in, this particle is expected to be in this vacuum state and we therefore should see around us some phenomenon that do not respect Lorentz invariance that comes from the interaction of this vectorial particle with ordinary matter. This thesis is presented in two parts. In the first part, we write every possible term involving our new …  Lire la suite

Residual dipolar couplings have been introduced recently as a new type of experimental constraints in biomolecular structure determination by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). These interactions are obtained by imparting weak orientational ordering to a biomolecule in a dilute liquid crystal. This results in a partial cancellation of anisotropic interactions such as the chemical shift anisotropy (CSA), the quadrupolar coupling and the dipolar coupling. Because the alignment is weak, only strong interactions manifest. These measurements can be used to refine structure or to define folds in structural genomics projects. Here, I demonstrate the use of a new alignment medium that consists …  Lire la suite

Cystic Fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) Cl - channels are rapidly and efficiently deactivated by a type 2C serine/threonine phosphatase (PP2C). The efficiency of this regulation suggests that PP2C and CFTR are associated within a regulatory complex. Previous work has shown that PP2C and CFTR can be co-immunoprecipitated and reversibly coupled by exposing cell lysates to the hydrophilic cross-linker dithiobis [sulfosuccinimidyl proprionate]. While it is clear that PP2C can associate with CFTR, the nature of the interaction between them has not been defined. The goal of this study was to identify specific region(s) within CFTR that mediate this interaction. The …  Lire la suite

RFIC's are traditionally implemented in III--V compounded semiconductors or in bipolar technologies, due to their superior RF performances (e.g. low noise) when compared to CMOS technologies. The challenges are not only to design RF transceivers in standard CMOS processes, but also to establish design methodologies and optimization techniques for their building blocks. This thesis is concerned with one of the key building blocks, namely the Low Noise Amplifier (LNA). Several low-voltage LNA's were successfully implemented in a standard 0.18 mum CMOS technology, operating in the 5--9 GHz frequency band, targeted for future wireless applications. A new and very simple gain …  Lire la suite

The stretch reflex is an involuntary contraction produced in response to muscle stretch. Despite extensive research, its role in the control of movement and posture remains controversial. One reason for this is that the torque output produced by reflex activity has been studied in only a limited number of tasks and behaviours. The main thrust of this thesis is to examine whether the central nervous system (CNS) modifies stretch reflex properties to suit the task. An electro-hydraulic actuator applied perturbations to the ankles of five subjects while they performed position-matching (PM) and torque-matching (TM) tasks. Stretch reflex properties were determined …  Lire la suite

This thesis intends to describe the contemporary self as drawn by literary theory and writing practice. This objective implies defining the human being considering its history as well as studying its representation in narratives. In order to circumscribe today's self, we undoubtedly have to study its historical evolution. Exploring the diametrically opposed conceptions suggested by modernity and postmodernity will lead us to a better understanding of the hybrid composition of the contemporary self, which is characterized by a search for coherence and meaning to a multidimensional and constantly evolving individual. This definition, so far theoretical, will have to be confronted …  Lire la suite

Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) is a biochemical marker used to monitor prostate cancer following treatment. We have analyzed serial PSA data for a cohort of men who underwent radical surgery for prostate cancer in the early 1990s. We first describe the development of a statistical model that reflects the characteristics of these data. It accommodates, via a mixture model with constrained parameters, two sub-populations of men who are and are not cured, along with the biologic pattern in the latter. We then describe how we fit this model using Gibbs Sampling. We describe how the output can be converted into …  Lire la suite

The eighteenth-century natural philosopher Mikhail Vasil'evich Lomonosov (1711-1765) has long been represented by Russian writers and scholars as an encyclopedic figure who not only pioneered the dissemination of a scientific ethos in Russia, but whose own innumerable contributions to science make him eminently worthy of inclusion in a pantheon among the greatest scientific minds. A robust mythology extolling Lomonosov's role in Russian science and culture formed in the years immediately following his death, and would increase in vigor while adapting to changing historical circumstances until well into the twentieth century. This dissertation explores the evolution of Lomonosov's imposing stature in …  Lire la suite

The signaling properties of the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) have been difficult to ascertain but new insights are emerging from a detailed characterization of cytosolic p75NTR interacting proteins. TRAF (Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor-associated Factors) proteins are a family of cytosolic adaptors that link members of the TNF superfamily to the JNK, NF-kB and Src signaling cascades. We show, using a GST pull down assay, that TRAF4 binds the p75NTR intracellular domain with high affinity in the juxtamembrane region. Of the remaining TRAFs, only TRAF6 bound p75NTR and much less avidly than TRAF4. Co-expression of p75NTR with TRAF4 reduced the apparent …  Lire la suite