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The objective of this article is to enrich the results of quantitative research carried out in Morocco on the determinants of the quality of school performance. It purposes to support these results with qualitative information on the attitudes and perceptions of actors in the school environment. The exchanges with the actors of five surveyed primary schools confirm the results of the quantitative studies but add an important nuance: the main explanatory factors of the weakness of the school performances explained by the quantitative approaches do not reflect the diversity of the apprehensions raised by the local actors.

Keywords: Maroc, évaluation, analyse qualitative, performance scolaire, enseignement primaire, Morocco, evaluation, qualitative analysis, school performance, primary education, Marruecos, evaluación, análisis cualitativo, rendimiento escolar, enseñanza primaria

Introduction Substance use among resident physicians is an underestimated, poorly understood, and serious problem because of its negative consequences for the health of physicians and also for the health and safety of the patients in their care.

Keywords: médecins résidents, Maroc, substances psychoactives, addiction, facteurs de risque, resident physicians, Morocco, psychoactive drugs, addiction, risk factors

Abdellatif Laâbi's entry onto the Moroccan literary scene, from the second half of the 1960s onwards, corresponds to what Matthieu Renault has called a « transitional moment » between anticolonialism and postcolonialism. Rooted in a colonial historical experience and an anticolonial political and intellectual commitment, Laâbi, like many other Moroccan intellectuals and writers, and more generally like many cultural actors from the former European colonies, gradually moved towards a form of postcolonial thought, although he never explicitly endorsed the word or the concept. This postcolonialism is reflected in the balance he managed to strike between his relationship with French as the language he uses in his writings and his parallel return to Arabic as the language of his intellectual exchanges within the Arab world as well as as the source and target language of his work as a translator.

Keywords: postcolonialisme, anticolonialisme, francophonie, traduction, Maroc

The study proposed in this article addresses the process of reception of democracy among Islamists, ranging from rejection to conditional acceptance. In particular, it aims to examine the configuration of the concept of shura in this process. An interdisciplinary method combining sociology of religion and theology has proven to be the most appropriate way to connect the religious and political dimensions of this question from a diachronic historical perspective. Focusing on two ideological corpora developed by two major figures in Morocco's Islamist landscape, this study adopts a comparative socio-analytical approach using content analysis and case study techniques. First, Abdessalam Yassine (1928-2012), founder, former supreme leader, and main theorist of Jamaat al-Adl wa al-Ihsan (Group for Justice and Charity), as representative of the camp that rejects democracy in favour of shura. Second, Ahmed Raissouni (1953-), president (1996-2003) of Harakat al-Tawhid wa al-Islah (Movement of Unity and Reform), the matrix and preachers' group associated with Hizb al-Adala wa al-Tanmiya (Justice and Development Party: a party with Islamist ideology that provided the government in Morocco from 2012 to 2021), representing the camp that seeks a reconciliation, albeit conditional, between shura and democracy.

Keywords: islam, islamisme, démocratie, choura, Maroc, Mouvement de l'unicité et de la réforme, Parti de la justice et du développement

In Morocco, diffuse ground water pollution by nitrates in irrigated areas has caused an increase in the risk of water quality deterioration. This has generated a health risk in rural areas, since most of the rural population get their drinking water supply from the aquifer. The present study was carried out in the Tadla region. The plain of Tadla is situated in the centre of Morocco, in the Oum Erbia river basin. It covers a surface area of 3600 km2. The Oum Erbia river (160 km long) divides this plain into two large irrigated areas (Beni Amir in the east (3300 ha) and Beni Moussa in the south (6900 ha)), with different hydrological characteristics. The irrigation water comes from the Oum Erbia river, the Bin El Ouidane dam and from two important waters tables: Beni Amir (190 Mm3) and Beni Moussa (250 Mm3). The objectives of this study were to quantify the degree of ground water contamination by nitrates and to identify the potential causes of this pollution.The monitoring of nitrate concentrations in ground water was carried out during the period of August 1996 to April 1998, in 100 wells in the region of study. The physical environment and agricultural practices were determined either by field measurements, laboratory analyses or by investigations with farmers at 40 selected sites. The results are presented by thematic maps using a geographical information system.The level of ground water nitrate pollution is becoming a serious problem. The point pollution is localized around or downstream of urban built up areas such as Fquih Ben Saleh, Beni Mellal, Souk Sebt and Oulad Ayad. This pollution, caused by household wastes, is likely aggravated by waste dumping from the sugar refineries (SUBM, SUTA and SUNAT) as well as by waste water reuse in agriculture. Other zones with nitrate concentrations more than 50 mg NO3 -/L were observed in wells situated downstream from Beni Amir and east of Beni Moussa. West Beni Moussa was generally not as polluted as east Beni Moussa, but an increase in ground water nitrate levels was observed in some downstream wells in west Beni Moussa. The diffuse nitrate pollution has been attributed to land use, irrigation and fertilization practices. These practices may be responsible for nitrate leaching beyond the root zone during the cropping season and may generate large quantities of residual inorganic nitrogen at harvest time. This represents a potential risk of nitrate ground water pollution in the next draining period. The physical characteristics of soil texture (clay, clay-silt and silty clay), percentage clay (29 % - 55 %) and their correlated parameters (especially the useful storage capacity) act to reduce the risk of nitrate leaching and ensures a control on ground water nitrate pollution. However, other observations including: a low water level table compared to the soil surface, particularly in the middle of the irrigated area and around the edge of the Oum Erbia river (<4 - 12m); a high soil infiltration rate in unsaturated soil, which varied from 20 -100 mm/h (permeable soils) to 200 - 450 mm/h (extremely permeable soils); a high level of organic matter in the soil (1.5% - 3.5%) and; total nitrogen contents (0.10% - 0.15%) would increase the aquifer vulnerability to ground water nitrate pollution. Similarly, the high soil mineralization capacity in the 0-60 cm soil layer (100 - 600 kg N /ha), combined with the ecological conditions, favoured an intense mineralization of the native organic matter of soil. This high mineralization capacity, which is characteristic of irrigated Mediterranean areas, could be partly responsible for this pollution. However, no correlation was found between ground water nitrate contents and linear combinations of physical environmental variables. This could be due to the homogeneity of the physical environment and to the movement of water in the saturated soil, in the direction of ground water flow, inducing the accumulation of nitrate pollution in the hydraulic downstream area of the water table.Considering the degree of agriculture in this area, the situation could worsen rapidly, thus inducing significant ground water deterioration. In attempts to avoid this situation, many important measures at the regional scale are necessary, in order to rationalize agricultural practices and to increase the farmers' awareness of ground water nitrate pollution. These urgent preventative actions should be adopted in order to combine agricultural productivity and durability with water economy and water quality preservation. Some programs are in progress within this region. The objectives are essentially to reduce nitrate excess and to introduce more efficient irrigation techniques such as the pivot (frontal ramp) recommended for cereals and sugar beet, and localized irrigation system proposed for vegetable crops and arboriculture. Also, since the Oum Erbia river basin has also been subjected to a clean-up of urban and industrial pollution, it would be interesting to carry out a more precise study of nitrogen dynamics and nitrate leaching at the plot scale, especially for the most common practiced crops in the region (wheat, sugar beet and vegetable crops). This would advance the understanding and management of nitrogen cycles in the crop-water-soil system.Finally, the database included as part of this study may be integrated in a water and nitrate movement simulation model. This will allow the prediction of nitrate leaching losses and identify, through scenario analysis, the links that should be acted on, in order to reduce the risk of ground water nitrate pollution in this region.

Keywords: Pollution, eaux souterraines, nitrates, caractéristiques physico-chimiques du sol, rejets urbains, pratiques agricoles, Maroc, Pollution, ground water, nitrate, soil physical and chemical characteristics, agricultural practices, urban pollution