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291.More information
Surveillance process related to economic policies was established in the franc zone after the monetary adjustment of 1994. This article proposes to analyze not only the theoretical foundation and the intricacities of this experience, but also an evaluation considering the convergence requirements and the convergence of the real economy. It analyses, in addition to this, the problems facing a balanced policy-mix in this monetary union.
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292.More information
The drought observed for more than twenty years in the sahelian countries has also affected those located more to the South with more humid climates (SUTCLIFFE and KNOTT, 1987; NICHOLSON et al, 1988; MAHE and OLIVRY, 1991; OLIVRY et al, 1993 PATUREL et al, 1995). The decrease in rainfall and consequently that in runoff might penalise development projects linked with water supply. The ICCARE programme led by ORSTOM aimed at identifying and measuring the consequences of this climatic variability in the non-sahelian parts of the West and Central African region as a whole. The study was based on rainfall data from more than two hundred stations, break detection methods in the time series as well as cartographic tools were used. This study allowed to highlight the manifestations of the climatic variability observed for nearly 25 years in West and Central Africa. Whereas it had been thought for a long time that the rainfall deficit was restricted to the sahelian region, this study showed that the forest covered regions were also affected and generally speaking the so-called 'humid Africa'. The decrease in rainfall entails that in runoff and thus a change in water resources availability which is the cornerstone of a fairly great number of development projects. Hydrological regimes variability and possible modifications of rainfall-runoff relationship are to be the next stages of the ICCARE programme, partial results were already published (SERVAT et al, 1997). A simple study of the time series showed straightforward fluctuations of the rainfall patterns (figures 2 and 3), which happened during the late sixties or the early seventies over the whole region. The mapping of the time series analysis depicts a clear general trend towards a shift of the isohyets to the south-south-west from the 1950's to the 1980's. This shift reflects a sharp drop in the annual rainfall over the whole of the non-sahelian west and central Africa. Generally speaking it appears that the zones with extreme rainfall patterns underwent the most important modifications, namely : the wettest ones from Guinea to Ivory Coast and the driest ones, bordering the sahelian region to the North of the studied area. Elsewhere changes are less drastic (SERVAT et al, 1996). The different statistical procedures applied to the series of annual rainfall showed breaks taking place during the late 1960's or the early 1970's (figure 4), which was in keeping with what had been observed in the sahelian region. Rainfall deficits were in the order of 20% and they could reach values higher than 25% (table 1), in particular along the Atlantic Coast or in the North, which upholds the fact that 'humid Africa' was also severely affected by the rainfall variability. Other variables which allow a more qualitative characterisation of the phenomenon were also studied (table 2) (figures 5 and 6) ( PATUREL et al, 1997, SERVAT et al, 1997). They brought complementary information about the ways the rainfall variability expresses itself. The pattern of the rainy season was slightly different from what it had been before the 1970's, its length was generally shorter either because it started later than before or because it ended earlier. Likewise, the rainfall distribution was modified, which resulted in a more 'homogeneous' pattern for the zone with only one rainy season and in a sensible change in the ratio of the rainfall heights of the two rainy seasons. Some of the regions of the so-called 'wooded' savannah saw a modification of their climate with a shift from a 'guinean' climate toward a 'sudanese' one. In west Africa some regions saw also a decrease of the amount of precipitation occurring outside the rainy season, which led to a strengthening of the dry season and contributed, if need be, to the perception of the phenomenon by local populations. The decrease in the number of rainy days, where it was possible to study it, was in line with the rainfall deficit. A complementary statistical approach was carried out, it consists of a spatio-temporal study using a multidimensional exploratory analysis (KHODJA et al, 1998). This led to using a multivariate test for detecting a shift in the mean value. This approach confirmed the results obtained with univariate analyses whether it is for the time location of the break (late 1960's, early 1970's) or whether for the heterogeneous character of the phenomenon both from a spatial or temporal point of view. A major characteristic of this persisting rainfall deficit seems to be the existence of two axes of heterogeneity along the north-south and east-west directions (table 3) (figure 7). The survey of the rainfall time series from the origin allowed to place the drought in a historical perspective. So, it appears that, since the beginning of the century, the region underwent a succession of dry and wet periods, although it is difficult to speak of cycles. The phenomenon observed during the late 60's and the early 70's appears, however, as the most significant from a statistical point of view. Besides, the still lasting period of deficit has displayed a length and an intensity quite remarkable, in particular in the north and west sectors of the studied zone where the phenomenon presents an even more exceptional character (figures 8,9,10 and 11). Even though what brought about this diminution in rainfall remains, until now, unexplained, certain human activities undoubtedly contributed to the aggravation of the phenomenon. Although deforestation cannot be held entirely responsible for the drought, the fact remains that overlogging helped to increase the rainfall deficit in numerous regions along the Atlantic coast and the Guinean gulf. Of course, this rainfall deficit has important consequences on the availability of water resources in those regions. Agriculture, the filling of dams and therefore the hydroelectric production, to mention only a few domains, are strongly penalised by this decrease in resources. If a real shortage is not to be feared in those regions where the quantities of precipitation remain high in absolute terms, the effects of that variability can still prove to be disastrous, as they modify the elements of a balance that is already threatened by other factors (anthropic pressure and deforestation, for example). The ICCARE programme, which goes on with the study of the modifications of the river hydrological regimes, will give answers as to the effect of the rainfall deficit upon water resources availability.
Keywords: Afrique de l'Ouest et Centrale, Pluviométrie, Variabilité climatique, Sécheresse, Séries chronologiques, Détection de ruptures, Western and Central Africa, Rainfall, Climate variability, Drought, Time series, Break detection
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This article analyse the characteristics and modalities of the internationalization of Senegalese companies in order to highlight their specificities. Based on a qualitative search of thirteen cases of Senegalese internationalised companies, the results firt allow us to propose an original categorisation of Senegalese internationalised companies. They also question the principle of establishment chain and the supposed predominance of export as a modality of deployment of African companies. Our research also shows the presence of various internationalization logic. The whole specificities highlighted by our research call for a contextualised re-reading of the process of internationalisation of Senegalese companies.
Keywords: Contingency relationships perspective, Internationalisation, International New Ventures, Sénégal, Théorie des ressources, Contingency relationships perspective, Internationalization, International New Ventures, Senegal, Theory of ressources, Perspectiva de relaciones de contingencia, Internacionalización, Nuevas Empresas Internacionales, Senegal, Teoría de recursos
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294.More information
Taking as case study the city of Ibadan, in south-west Nigeria, at the end of the colonial period (1947-1957), the author focuses on the analysis of women's collective mobilizations. They represent a privileged point of view to study the kind of organisation Nigerian women gave themselves in order to negotiate greater independence in both the socio-economic and political spheres. The author draws attention more specifically to the complexity of these negotiations when they involved calling into question the gender attributions of that period, namely the concept of femininity, based on the social role of housewives, mothers and wives. The study of women's strategies and speeches shows the fields where they were able to overcome difficulties and acquire the desired visibility and the fields where they had to bend to social rules still too deeply rooted to be overthrown.
Keywords: mobilisations féminines, organisations féminines, mouvements collectifs, Nigéria (Afrique), éducation, politique
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AbstractThe purpose of this article, which focuses on how migrants' countries of origin and countries of transit contribute to the fight against irregular immigration in Europe, is to analyze how these actors intervene in the management of migration flows and border control, and the resulting impact on the rights of economic migrants and asylum seekers, despite their clear difference in status. We demonstrate that the means and measures taken by third countries in the context of the European Union's fight against irregular immigration not only help foster this distinction between economic migrants and asylum seekers, but also lead to violations of their fundamental rights.
Keywords: coopération, pays d'origine, pays de transit, externalisation, droits de la personne, protection internationale, migrants économiques, demandeurs d'asile, renvoi forcé, Cooperation, country of origin, country of transit, externalization, human rights, international protection, economic migrants, asylum seekers, forced return, cooperación, países de origen, países de tránsito, externalización, protección internacional, derechos humanos, migrantes económicos, devolución forzada, solicitantes de asilo